Skip to main content Accessibility help

Login Alert

Cancel
×
×

Menu links

  1. Browse
      1. Subjects
          1. Subjects (A-D)
            1. Anthropology
            2. Archaeology
            3. Area Studies
            4. Art
            5. Chemistry
            6. Classical Studies
            7. Computer Science
            8. Drama, Theatre, Performance Studies
          2. Subjects (E-K)
            1. Earth and Environmental Science
            2. Economics
            3. Education
            4. Engineering
            5. English Language Teaching – Resources for Teachers
            6. Film, Media, Mass Communication
            7. General Science
            8. Geography
            9. History
          3. Subjects (L-O)
            1. Language and Linguistics
            2. Law
            3. Life Sciences
            4. Literature
            5. Management
            6. Materials Science
            7. Mathematics
            8. Medicine
            9. Music
            10. Nutrition
          4. Subjects (P-Z)
            1. Philosophy
            2. Physics and Astronomy
            3. Politics and International Relations
            4. Psychiatry
            5. Psychology
            6. Religion
            7. Social Science Research Methods
            8. Sociology
            9. Statistics and Probability
        1. Open access
            1. All open access publishing
              1. Open access
              2. Open access journals
              3. Research open journals
              4. Journals containing open access
              5. Open access articles
              6. Open access books
              7. Open access Elements
          1. Journals
              1. Explore
                1. All journal subjects
                2. Search journals
              2. Open access
                1. Open access journals
                2. Research open journals
                3. Journals containing open access
                4. Open access articles
              3. Collections
                1. Cambridge Forum
                2. Cambridge Law Reports Collection
                3. Cambridge Prisms
                4. Research Directions
            1. Books
                1. Explore
                  1. Books
                  2. Open access books
                  3. New books
                  4. Flip it Open
                2. Collections
                  1. Cambridge Companions
                  2. Cambridge Editions
                  3. Cambridge Histories
                  4. Cambridge Library Collection
                  5. Cambridge Shakespeare
                  6. Cambridge Handbooks
                3. Collections (cont.)
                  1. Dispute Settlement Reports Online
                  2. Flip it Open
                  3. Hemingway Letters
                  4. Shakespeare Survey
                  5. Stahl Online
                  6. The Correspondence of Isaac Newton
              1. Elements
                  1. Explore
                    1. About Elements
                    2. Elements series
                    3. Open access Elements
                    4. New Elements
                  2. Subjects (A-E)
                    1. Anthropology
                    2. Archaeology
                    3. Classical Studies
                    4. Computer Science
                    5. Drama, Theatre, Performance Studies
                    6. Earth and Environmental Sciences
                    7. Economics
                    8. Education
                    9. Engineering
                  3. Subjects (F-O)
                    1. Film, Media, Mass Communication
                    2. History
                    3. Language and Linguistics
                    4. Law
                    5. Life Sciences
                    6. Literature
                    7. Management
                    8. Mathematics
                    9. Medicine
                    10. Music
                  4. Subjects (P-Z)
                    1. Philosophy
                    2. Physics and Astronomy
                    3. Politics and International Relations
                    4. Psychology
                    5. Religion
                    6. Sociology
                    7. Statistics and Probability
                1. Textbooks
                    1. Explore
                      1. Cambridge Higher Education
                      2. Title list
                      3. New titles
                  1. Collections
                      1. Book collections
                        1. Cambridge Companions
                        2. Cambridge Editions
                        3. Cambridge Histories
                        4. Cambridge Library Collection
                        5. Cambridge Shakespeare
                        6. Cambridge Handbooks
                      2. Book collections (cont.)
                        1. Dispute Settlement Reports Online
                        2. Flip it Open
                        3. Hemingway Letters
                        4. Shakespeare Survey
                        5. Stahl Online
                        6. The Correspondence of Isaac Newton
                      3. Journal collections
                        1. Cambridge Forum
                        2. Cambridge Law Reports Collection
                        3. Cambridge Materials
                        4. Cambridge Prisms
                      4. Series
                        1. All series
                    1. Partners
                        1. Partners
                          1. Agenda Publishing
                          2. Anthem Press
                          3. ARC Humanities Press
                          4. Boydell & Brewer
                          5. Bristol University Press
                          6. Central European University Press
                          7. Edinburgh University Press
                          8. Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research
                          9. Facet Publishing
                          10. Foundation Books
                        2. Partners (cont.)
                          1. Gerlach Press
                          2. Intersentia
                          3. ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute
                          4. Jagiellonian University Press
                          5. Manchester University Press
                          6. Multilingual Matters
                          7. Oxbow Books
                          8. Royal Economic Society
                          9. The University of Adelaide Press
                          10. Unisa Press
                        3. Partners (cont.)
                          1. Wits University Press
                    2. Services
                        1. About
                            1. About Cambridge Core
                              1. About
                              2. Accessibility statement
                              3. CrossMark policy
                              4. Ethical Standards
                            2. Environment and sustainability
                              1. Environment and sustainability
                              2. Reducing print
                              3. Journals moving to online only
                            3. Guides
                              1. User guides
                              2. User Guides and Videos
                              3. Support Videos
                              4. Training
                            4. Help
                              1. Cambridge Core help
                              2. Contact us
                              3. Technical support
                          1. Agents
                              1. Services for agents
                                1. Services for agents
                                2. Journals for agents
                                3. Books for agents
                                4. Price list
                            1. Authors
                                1. Journals
                                  1. Journal authors
                                  2. Journal publishing statistics
                                  3. Corresponding author
                                  4. Seeking permission to use copyrighted material
                                  5. Publishing supplementary material
                                  6. Preparing accessible materials
                                  7. Journal production - FAQs
                                2. Journals (cont.)
                                  1. Author affiliations
                                  2. Co-reviewing policy
                                  3. Anonymising your manuscript
                                  4. Publishing open access
                                  5. Convert your article to Gold Open Access
                                  6. Publishing Open Access - webinars
                                3. Journals (cont.)
                                  1. Preparing and submitting your paper
                                  2. Publication journey
                                  3. Publishing agreement FAQs for journal authors
                                  4. Author Information Form FAQs
                                  5. Promoting your published paper
                                  6. Measuring impact
                                  7. Journals artwork guide
                                  8. Using ORCID
                                4. Books
                                  1. Books
                                  2. Publishing an open access book
                                  3. Marketing your book
                                  4. Author guides for Cambridge Elements
                              1. Corporates
                                  1. Corporates
                                    1. Commercial reprints
                                    2. Advertising
                                    3. Sponsorship
                                    4. Book special sales
                                    5. Contact us
                                1. Editors
                                    1. Information
                                      1. Journal development
                                      2. Peer review for editors
                                      3. Open access for editors
                                      4. Policies and guidelines
                                    2. Resources
                                      1. The editor's role
                                      2. Open research for editors
                                      3. Engagement and promotion for editors
                                  1. Librarians
                                      1. Information
                                        1. Open Access for Librarians
                                        2. Transformative agreements
                                        3. Transformative Agreements - FAQs
                                        4. Evidence based acquisition
                                        5. Cambridge libraries of the world podcast
                                        6. Purchasing models
                                        7. Journals Publishing Updates
                                      2. Products
                                        1. Cambridge frontlist
                                        2. Cambridge journals digital archive
                                        3. Hot topics
                                        4. Other digital products
                                        5. Perpetual access products
                                        6. Price list
                                        7. Developing country programme
                                        8. New content
                                      3. Tools
                                        1. Eligibility checker
                                        2. Transformative agreements
                                        3. KBART
                                        4. MARC records
                                        5. Using MARCEdit for MARC records
                                        6. Inbound OpenURL specifications
                                        7. COUNTER usage reporting
                                      4. Resources
                                        1. Catalogues and resources
                                        2. Making the most of your EBA
                                        3. Posters
                                        4. Leaflets and brochures
                                        5. Additional resources
                                        6. Find my sales contact
                                        7. Training
                                        8. Read and publish resources
                                    1. Peer review
                                        1. Peer review
                                          1. How to peer review journal articles
                                          2. How to peer review book proposals
                                          3. How to peer review Registered Reports
                                          4. Peer review FAQs
                                          5. Ethics in peer review
                                          6. Online peer review systems
                                          7. A guide to Publons
                                      1. Publishing ethics
                                          1. Journals
                                            1. Publishing ethics guidelines for journals
                                            2. Core editorial policies for journals
                                            3. Authorship and contributorship for journals
                                            4. Affiliations for journals
                                            5. Research ethics for journals
                                            6. Competing interests and funding for journals
                                          2. Journals (cont.)
                                            1. Data and supporting evidence for journals
                                            2. Misconduct for journals
                                            3. Corrections, retractions and removals for journals
                                            4. Versions and adaptations for journals
                                            5. Libel, defamation and freedom of expression
                                            6. Business ethics journals
                                          3. Books
                                            1. Publishing ethics guidelines for books
                                            2. Core editorial policies for books
                                            3. Authorship and contributorship for books
                                            4. Affiliations for books
                                            5. Research ethics for books
                                            6. Competing interests and funding for books
                                          4. Books (cont.)
                                            1. Data and supporting evidence for books
                                            2. Misconduct for books
                                            3. Corrections, retractions and removals for books
                                            4. Versions and adaptations for books
                                            5. Libel, defamation and freedom of expression
                                            6. Business ethics books
                                        1. Publishing partners
                                            1. Publishing partners
                                              1. Publishing partnerships
                                              2. Book publishing partners
                                              3. eBook publishing partnerships
                                              4. Journal publishing partnerships
                                            2. Publishing partners (cont.)
                                              1. Journals publishing
                                              2. Customer support
                                              3. Membership Services
                                              4. Our Team
                                        2. Open research
                                            1. Open access policies
                                                1. Open access policies
                                                  1. Open research
                                                  2. Open access policies
                                                  3. Cambridge University Press and Plan S
                                                  4. Text and data mining
                                                  5. Preprint policy
                                                  6. Social sharing
                                                2. Journals
                                                  1. Open access journals
                                                  2. Gold Open Access journals
                                                  3. Transformative journals
                                                  4. Green Open Access policy for journals
                                                  5. Transparent pricing policy for journals
                                                3. Books and Elements
                                                  1. Open access books
                                                  2. Gold open access books
                                                  3. Green Open Access policy for books
                                                  4. Open access Elements
                                              1. Open access publishing
                                                  1. About open access
                                                    1. Open research
                                                    2. Open Access Week
                                                    3. What is open access?
                                                    4. Open access glossary
                                                    5. Open access myths
                                                    6. Hybrid Open Access FAQs
                                                    7. Eligibility checker
                                                  2. Open access resources
                                                    1. Open access resources
                                                    2. Benefits of open access
                                                    3. Creative commons licences
                                                    4. Funder policies and mandates
                                                    5. Article type definitions
                                                    6. Convert your article to Gold Open Access
                                                1. Open research initiatives
                                                    1. Research transparency
                                                      1. Transparency and openness
                                                      2. Open Practice Badges
                                                      3. OA organisations, initiatives & directories
                                                      4. Registered Reports
                                                      5. Annotation for Transparent Inquiry (ATI)
                                                    2. Journal flips
                                                      1. Open access journal flips
                                                      2. OA Journal Flip FAQs
                                                    3. Flip it Open
                                                      1. Flip it Open
                                                      2. Flip it Open FAQs
                                                  1. Open access funding
                                                      1. Open access funding
                                                        1. Funding open access publication
                                                        2. Cambridge Open Equity Initiative
                                                        3. Completing a RightsLink (open access) transaction
                                                    1. Cambridge Open Engage
                                                        1. Cambridge Open Engage
                                                          1. Cambridge Open Engage
                                                          2. Partner With Us
                                                          3. Branded Hubs
                                                          4. Event Workspaces
                                                          5. Partner Resources
                                                          6. APSA Preprints
                                                          7. APSA Preprints FAQs
                                                    Hostname: page-component-77f85d65b8-8wtlm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2026-04-16T05:26:17.551Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
                                                    • English
                                                    • Français
                                                    Behavioral and Brain Sciences

                                                    Article contents

                                                    The Now-or-Never bottleneck: A fundamental constraint on language

                                                    Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 April 2015

                                                    Morten H. Christiansen  and
                                                    Nick Chater
                                                    Morten H. Christiansen
                                                    Affiliation:
                                                    Department of Psychology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853 The Interacting Minds Centre, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, DenmarkHaskins Laboratories, New Haven, CT 06511 christiansen@cornell.edu
                                                    Nick Chater
                                                    Affiliation:
                                                    Behavioural Science Group, Warwick Business School, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom nick.chater@wbs.ac.uk
                                                    Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

                                                    Abstract

                                                    Memory is fleeting. New material rapidly obliterates previous material. How, then, can the brain deal successfully with the continual deluge of linguistic input? We argue that, to deal with this “Now-or-Never” bottleneck, the brain must compress and recode linguistic input as rapidly as possible. This observation has strong implications for the nature of language processing: (1) the language system must “eagerly” recode and compress linguistic input; (2) as the bottleneck recurs at each new representational level, the language system must build a multilevel linguistic representation; and (3) the language system must deploy all available information predictively to ensure that local linguistic ambiguities are dealt with “Right-First-Time”; once the original input is lost, there is no way for the language system to recover. This is “Chunk-and-Pass” processing. Similarly, language learning must also occur in the here and now, which implies that language acquisition is learning to process, rather than inducing, a grammar. Moreover, this perspective provides a cognitive foundation for grammaticalization and other aspects of language change. Chunk-and-Pass processing also helps explain a variety of core properties of language, including its multilevel representational structure and duality of patterning. This approach promises to create a direct relationship between psycholinguistics and linguistic theory. More generally, we outline a framework within which to integrate often disconnected inquiries into language processing, language acquisition, and language change and evolution.

                                                    Keywords

                                                    chunkinggrammaticalizationincremental interpretationlanguage acquisitionlanguage evolutionlanguage processingonline learningpredictionprocessing bottleneckpsycholinguistics

                                                    Information

                                                    Type
                                                    Target Article
                                                    Information
                                                    Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 39 , 2016 , e62
                                                    Check for updates
                                                    Copyright
                                                    Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

                                                    Access options

                                                    Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

                                                    Article purchase

                                                    Temporarily unavailable

                                                    References

                                                    Allopenna, P. D., Magnuson, J. S. & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1998) Tracking the time course of spoken word recognition using eye movements: Evidence for continuous mapping models. Journal of Memory and Language 38:419–39.Google Scholar
                                                    Altmann, G. T. M. (2002) Learning and development in neural networks: The importance of prior experience. Cognition 85:43–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
                                                    Altmann, G. T. M. (2004) Language-mediated eye movements in the absence of a visual world: The “blank screen paradigm.” Cognition 93:79–87.Google Scholar
                                                    Altmann, G. T. M. & Kamide, Y. (1999) Incremental interpretation at verbs: Restricting the domain of subsequent reference. Cognition 73:247–64.Google Scholar
                                                    Altmann, G. T. M. & Kamide, Y. (2009) Discourse-mediation of the mapping between language and the visual world: Eye movements and mental representation. Cognition 111:55–71.Google Scholar
                                                    Altmann, G. T. M. & Mirkovic, J. (2009) Incrementality and prediction in human sentence processing. Cognitive Science 33:583–609.Google Scholar
                                                    Altmann, G. T. M. & Steedman, M. J. (1988) Interaction with context during human sentence processing. Cognition 30:191–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
                                                    Anderson, J. R. (1990) The adaptive character of thought. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
                                                    Arbib, M. A. (2005) From monkey-like action recognition to human language: An evolutionary framework for neurolinguistics. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 28:105–24.Google Scholar
                                                    Arnon, I. & Christiansen, M. H. (submitted) The role of multiword building blocks in explaining L1-L2 differencesGoogle Scholar
                                                    Arnon, I. & Clark, E. V. (2011) Why brush your teeth is better than teeth – Children's word production is facilitated in familiar sentence-frames. Language Learning and Development 7:107–29.Google Scholar
                                                    Arnon, I. & Cohen Priva, U. (2013) More than words: The effect of multi-word frequency and constituency on phonetic duration. Language and Speech 56:349–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
                                                    Arnon, I. & Snider, N. (2010) More than words: Frequency effects for multi-word phrases. Journal of Memory and Language 62:67–82.Google Scholar
                                                    Austin, J. L. (1962) How to do things with words. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Baker, M. (2001) The atoms of language. Basic Books.Google Scholar
                                                    Bannard, C. & Matthews, D. (2008) Stored word sequences in language learning. Psychological Science 19:241–48.Google Scholar
                                                    Bar, M. (2004) Visual objects in context. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5:617–29.Google Scholar
                                                    Bar, M. (2007) The proactive brain: Using analogies and associations to generate predictions. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11:280–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
                                                    Baumann, T. & Schlangen, D. (2012) INPRO_iSS: A component for just-in-time incremental speech synthesis. In: Proceedings of the ACL 2012 System Demonstrations, pp. 103–108. Association for Computational Linguistics.Google Scholar
                                                    Beckner, C., Blythe, R., Bybee, J., Christiansen, M. H., Croft, W., Ellis, N., Holland, J., Ke, J., Larsen- Freeman, D. & Schoenemann, T. (2009) Language is a complex adaptive system: Position paper. Language Learning 59(Suppl. 1):1–27.Google Scholar
                                                    Bellugi, U. & Fisher, S. (1972) A comparison of sign language and spoken language. Cognition 1:173–200.Google Scholar
                                                    Berwick, R. C. (1985) The acquisition of syntactic knowledge. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Berwick, R. C., Friederici, A. D., Chomsky, N. & Bolhuis, J. J. (2013) Evolution, brain, and the nature of language. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 17:91–100.Google Scholar
                                                    Berwick, R. C. & Weinberg, A. S. (1984) The grammatical basis of linguistic performance. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Bever, T. (1970) The cognitive basis for linguistic structures. In: Cognition and the development of language, ed. Hayes, J. R., pp. 279–362. Wiley.Google Scholar
                                                    Bickerton, D. (1984) The language bioprogram hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7:173–221.Google Scholar
                                                    Bock, J. K. (1982) Toward a cognitive psychology of syntax: Information processing contributions to sentence formulation. Psychological Review 89:1–47.Google Scholar
                                                    Bock, J. K. (1986) Meaning, sound, and syntax: Lexical priming in sentence production. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12:575–86.Google Scholar
                                                    Bock, J. K. & Loebell, H. (1990) Framing sentences. Cognition 35:1–39.Google Scholar
                                                    Bock, J. K. & Miller, C. A. (1991) Broken agreement. Cognitive Psychology 23:45–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
                                                    Bod, R. (2009) From exemplar to grammar: A probabilistic analogy–based model of language learning. Cognitive Science 33:752–93.Google Scholar
                                                    Boeckx, C. & Leivada, E. (2013) Entangled parametric hierarchies: Problems for an overspecified universal grammar. PLOS ONE 8(9):e72357.Google Scholar
                                                    Borovsky, A., Elman, J. L. & Fernald, A. (2012) Knowing a lot for one's age: Vocabulary skill and not age is associated with anticipatory incremental sentence interpretation in children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 112:417–36.Google Scholar
                                                    Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. (1987) The evolution of ethnic markers. Cultural Anthropology 2:65–79.Google Scholar
                                                    Branigan, H., Pickering, M. & Cleland, A. (2000) Syntactic co-ordination in dialogue. Cognition 75:13–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
                                                    Bregman, A. S. (1990) Auditory scene analysis: The perceptual organization of sound. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Broadbent, D. (1958) Perception and communication. Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Brown, G. D. A., Neath, I. & Chater, N. (2007) A temporal ratio model of memory. Psychological Review 114:539–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
                                                    Brown-Schmidt, S. & Konopka, A. E. (2011) Experimental approaches to referential domains and the on-line processing of referring expressions in unscripted conversation. Information 2:302–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Brown-Schmidt, S. & Konopka, A. (2015) Processes of incremental message planning during conversation. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 22:833–43.Google Scholar
                                                    Brown-Schmidt, S. & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2008) Real-time investigation of referential domains in unscripted conversation: A targeted language game approach. Cognitive Science 32:643–84.Google Scholar
                                                    Bybee, J. (2002) Word frequency and context of use in the lexical diffusion of phonetically conditioned sound change. Language Variation and Change 14:261–90.Google Scholar
                                                    Bybee, J. (2006) From usage to grammar: The mind's response to repetition. Language 82:711–33.Google Scholar
                                                    Bybee, J. (2007) Frequency of use and the organization of language. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Bybee, J. (2009) Language universals and usage-based theory. In: Language universals, ed. Christiansen, M. H., Collins, C. & Edelman, S., pp. 17–39. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Bybee, J. & Hopper, P., eds. (2001) Frequency and the emergence of linguistic structure. John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Bybee, J. & McClelland, J. L. (2005) Alternatives to the combinatorial paradigm of linguistic theory based on general principles of human cognition. The Linguistic Review 22:381–410.Google Scholar
                                                    Bybee, J., Perkins, R. D. & Pagliuca, W. (1994) The evolution of grammar: Tense, aspect and modality in the languages of the world. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Bybee, J. & Scheibman, J. (1999) The effect of usage on degrees of constituency: The reduction of don't in English. Linguistics 37:575–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Bybee, J. L. & Slobin, D. I. (1982) Rules and schemas in the development and use of the English past tense. Language 58:265–89.Google Scholar
                                                    Campbell, L. (2000) What's wrong with grammaticalization? Language Sciences 23:113–61.Google Scholar
                                                    Cann, R. & Kempson, R. (2008) Production pressures, syntactic change and the emergence of clitic pronouns. In: Language in flux: Dialogue coordination, language variation, change and evolution, ed. Cooper, R. & Kempson, R., pp. 221–63. College Publications.Google Scholar
                                                    Cann, R., Kempson, R. & Wedgwood, D. (2012) Representationalism and linguistic knowledge. In: Philosophy of linguistics, ed. Kempson, R., Fernando, T. & Asher, N., pp. 357–402. Elsevier.Google Scholar
                                                    Carr, M. F., Jadhav, S. P. & Frank, L. M. (2011) Hippocampal replay in the awake state: A potential substrate for memory consolidation and retrieval. Nature Neuroscience 14:147–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Carstairs-McCarthy, A. (1992) Current morphology. Routledge.Google Scholar
                                                    Chang, F., Dell, G. S. & Bock, K. (2006) Becoming syntactic. Psychological Review 113:234–72.Google Scholar
                                                    Chater, N., Crocker, M. J. & Pickering, M. J. (1998) The rational analysis of inquiry: The case of parsing. In: Rational models of cognition, ed. Oaksford, M. & Chater, N., pp. 441–68. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Chater, N., McCauley, S. M. & Christiansen, M. H. (2106) Language as skill: Intertwining comprehension and production. Journal of Memory and Language 89:244–54.Google Scholar
                                                    Chater, N., Tenenbaum, J. B. & Yuille, A. (2006) Probabilistic models of cognition: Conceptual foundations. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10:287–91.Google Scholar
                                                    Cherry, E. C. (1953) Some experiments on the recognition of speech with one and with two ears. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 25:975–79.Google Scholar
                                                    Chomsky, N. (1957) Syntactic structures. Mouton.Google Scholar
                                                    Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the theory of syntax. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Chomsky, N. (1981) Lectures on government and binding. Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
                                                    Christiansen, M. H. & Chater, N. (1999) Toward a connectionist model of recursion in human linguistic performance. Cognitive Science 23:157–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Christiansen, M. H. & Chater, N. (2008) Language as shaped by the brain. Behavioral & Brain Sciences 31(05):489–58.Google Scholar
                                                    Christiansen, M. H. & MacDonald, M. C. (2009) A usage-based approach to recursion in sentence processing. Language Learning 59(Suppl. 1):126–61.Google Scholar
                                                    Clark, A. (2013) Whatever next? Predictive brains, situated agents, and the future of cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 36(3):181–253.Google Scholar
                                                    Clark, H. H. (1996) Using language. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Clark, J., Yallop, C. & Fletcher, J. (2007) An introduction to phonetics and phonology, third edition. Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
                                                    Clément, S., Demany, L. & Semal, C. (1999) Memory for pitch versus memory for loudness. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 106:2805–11.Google Scholar
                                                    Coltheart, M. (1980) Iconic memory and visible persistence. Perception & Psychophysics 27:183–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
                                                    Cooper, R. P. & Shallice, T. (2006) Hierarchical schemas and goals in the control of sequential behavior. Psychological Review 113:887–916.Google Scholar
                                                    Cowan, N. (2000) The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 24:87–185.Google Scholar
                                                    Crick, F. & Mitchison, G. (1983) The function of dream sleep. Nature 304:111–14.Google Scholar
                                                    Croft, W. (2001) Radical construction grammar. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Crowder, R. G. & Neath, I. (1991) The microscope metaphor in human memory. In: Relating theory and data: Essays on human memory in honour of Bennet B. Murdock, Jr., ed. Hockley, W. E. & Lewandowsky, S.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
                                                    Culicover, P. W. (1999) Syntactic nuts: Hard cases, syntactic theory, and language acquisition. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Culicover, P. W. (2013) The role of linear order in the computation of referential dependencies. Lingua 136:125–44.Google Scholar
                                                    Cutler, A., ed. (1982) Slips of the tongue and language production. De Gruyter Mouton.Google Scholar
                                                    Dahan, D. (2010) The time course of interpretation in speech comprehension. Current Directions in Psychological Science 19:121–26.Google Scholar
                                                    de Vries, M. H., Christiansen, M. H. & Petersson, K. M. (2011) Learning recursion: Multiple nested and crossed dependencies. Biolinguistics 5:10–35.Google Scholar
                                                    Dediu, D., Cysouw, M., Levinson, S. C., Baronchelli, A., Christiansen, M. H., Croft, W., Evans, N., Garrod, S., Gray, R., Kandler, A. & Lieven, E. (2013) Cultural evolution of language. In: Cultural evolution: Society, technology, language and religion, ed. Richerson, P. J. & Christiansen, M. H., pp. 303–32. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Dehaene-Lambertz, G., Dehaene, S., Anton, J. L., Campagne, A., Ciuciu, P., Dehaene, G. P., Denghien, I., Jobert, A., Lebihan, D., Sigman, M., Pallier, C. & Poline, J.-P. (2006a) Functional segregation of cortical language areas by sentence repetition. Human Brain Mapping 27:360–71.Google Scholar
                                                    Dehaene-Lambertz, G., Hertz-Pannier, L., Dubois, J., Meriaux, S., Roche, A., Sigman, M. & Dehaene, S. (2006b) Functional organization of perisylvian activation during presentation of sentences in preverbal infants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103:14240–45.Google Scholar
                                                    Dell, G. S., Burger, L. K. & Svec, W. R. (1997) Language production and serial order: A functional analysis and a model. Psychological Review 104:123–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Dell, G. S. & Chang, F. (2014) The P-chain: Relating sentence production and its disorders to comprehension and acquisition. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 369(1634):20120394.Google Scholar
                                                    DeLong, K. A., Urbach, T. P. & Kutas, M. (2005) Probabilistic word pre-activation during language comprehension inferred from electrical brain activity. Nature Neuroscience 8:1117–21.Google Scholar
                                                    Dikker, S., Rabagliati, H., Farmer, T. A. & Pylkkänen, L. (2010) Early occipital sensitivity to syntactic category is based on form typicality. Psychological Science 21:629–34.Google Scholar
                                                    Dunn, M., Greenhill, S. J., Levinson, S. C. & Gray, R. D. (2011) Evolved structure of language shows lineage-specific trends in word-order universals. Nature 473:79–82.Google Scholar
                                                    Durrant, P. (2013) Formulaicity in an agglutinating language: The case of Turkish. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 9:1–38.Google Scholar
                                                    Elliott, L. L. (1962) Backward and forward masking of probe tones of different frequencies. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 34:1116–17.Google Scholar
                                                    Ellis, N. C. (2002) Frequency effects in language processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 24:143–88.Google Scholar
                                                    Elman, J. L. (1990) Finding structure in time. Cognitive Science 14(2):179–211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Enfield, N. J. (2013) Relationship thinking: Enchrony, agency, and human sociality. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Erickson, T. A. & Matteson, M. E. (1981) From words to meaning: A semantic illusion. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 20:540–52.Google Scholar
                                                    Ericsson, K. A., Chase, W. G. & Faloon, S. (1980) Acquisition of a memory skill. Science 208:1181–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Evans, N. & Levinson, S. (2009) The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 32:429–92.Google Scholar
                                                    Farmer, T. A., Christiansen, M. H. & Monaghan, P. (2006) Phonological typicality influences on-line sentence comprehension. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103:12203–208.Google Scholar
                                                    Farmer, T. A., Monaghan, P., Misyak, J. B. & Christiansen, M. H. (2011) Phonological typicality influences sentence processing in predictive contexts: A reply to Staub et al. (2009) Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 37:1318–25.Google Scholar
                                                    Federmeier, K. D. (2007) Thinking ahead: The role and roots of prediction in language comprehension. Psychophysiology 44:491–505.Google Scholar
                                                    Ferreira, F., Bailey, K. G. & Ferraro, V. (2002) Good-enough representations in language comprehension. Current Directions in Psychological Science 11(1):11–15.Google Scholar
                                                    Ferreira, V. (2008) Ambiguity, accessibility, and a division of labor for communicative success. Psychology of Learning and Motivation 49:209–46.Google Scholar
                                                    Ferrer i Cancho, R. (2004) The Euclidean distance between syntactically linked words. Physical Review E 70:056135.Google Scholar
                                                    Ferrer i Cancho, R. & Liu, H. (2014) The risks of mixing dependency lengths from sequences of different length. Glottotheory 5:143–55.Google Scholar
                                                    Fine, A. B., Jaeger, T. F., Farmer, T. A. & Qian, T. (2013) Rapid expectation adaptation during syntactic comprehension. PLOS ONE 8(10):e77661.Google Scholar
                                                    Fiske, S. T. & Taylor, S. E. (1984) Social cognition. Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
                                                    Fitneva, S. A., Christiansen, M. H. & Monaghan, P. (2009) From sound to syntax: Phonological constraints on children's lexical categorization of new words. Journal of Child Language 36:967–97.Google Scholar
                                                    Flanagan, J. R. & Wing, A. M. (1997) The role of internal models in motor planning and control: Evidence from grip force adjustments during movements of hand-held loads. Journal of Neuroscience 17:1519–28.Google Scholar
                                                    Fleischman, S. (1982) The future in thought and language: Diachronic evidence from Romance. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Fodor, J. D. (1998) Unambiguous triggers. Linguistic Inquiry 29:1–36.Google Scholar
                                                    Ford, M., Bresnan, J. W. & Kaplan, R. M. (1982) A competence-based theory of syntactic closure. In: The mental representation of grammatical relations, ed. Bresnan, J. W., pp. 727–96. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Frank, S. L., Bod, R. & Christiansen, M. H. (2012) How hierarchical is language use? Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279:4522–31.Google Scholar
                                                    Frazier, L. & Fodor, J. D. (1978) The sausage machine: A new two-stage parsing model. Cognition 6:291–25.Google Scholar
                                                    French, R. M. (1999) Catastrophic forgetting in connectionist networks. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 3:128–35.Google Scholar
                                                    Gahl, S. & Garnsey, S. M. (2004) Knowledge of grammar, knowledge of usage: Syntactic probabilities affect pronunciation variation. Language 80:748–75.Google Scholar
                                                    Gallace, A., Tan, H. Z. & Spence, C. (2006) The failure to detect tactile change: A tactile analogue of visual change blindness. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 13:300–303.Google Scholar
                                                    Gibson, E. (1998) Linguistic complexity: Locality of syntactic dependencies. Cognition 68:1–76.Google Scholar
                                                    Gibson, E., Bergen, L. & Piantadosi, S. T. (2013) Rational integration of noisy evidence and prior semantic expectations in sentence interpretation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110:8051–56.Google Scholar
                                                    Gibson, E. & Wexler, K. (1994) Triggers. Linguistic Inquiry 25:407–54.Google Scholar
                                                    Gildea, D. & Temperley, D. (2010) Do grammars minimize dependency length? Cognitive Science 34:286–310.Google Scholar
                                                    Givón, T. (1971) Historical syntax and synchronic morphology: An archaeologist's field trip. Chicago Linguistic Society 7:394–415.Google Scholar
                                                    Givón, T. (1979) On understanding grammar. Academic Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Gobet, F., Lane, P. C. R., Croker, S., Cheng, P. C. H., Jones, G., Oliver, I. & Pine, J. M. (2001) Chunking mechanisms in human learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5:236–43.Google Scholar
                                                    Gold, E. M. (1967) Language identification in the limit. Information and Control 10:447–74.Google Scholar
                                                    Goldberg, A. (2006) Constructions at work. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Goldinger, S. D. (1998) Echoes of echoes? An episodic theory of lexical access. Psychological Review 105:251–79.Google Scholar
                                                    Golinkoff, R. M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Bloom, L., Smith, L., Woodward, A., Akhtar, N., Tomasello, M. & Hollich, G., eds. (2000) Becoming a word learner: A debate on lexical acquisition. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Gorrell, P. (1995) Syntax and parsing. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Graybiel, A. M. (1998) The basal ganglia and chunking of action repertoires. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 70:119–36.Google Scholar
                                                    Grice, H. P. (1967) Logic and conversation. James, William Lectures. Manuscript, Harvard University.Google Scholar
                                                    Griffiths, T. L. & Tenenbaum, J. B. (2009) Theory-based causal induction. Psychological Review 116:661–716.Google Scholar
                                                    Gurevich, O., Johnson, M. A. & Goldberg, A. E. (2010) Incidental verbatim memory for language. Language and Cognition 2:45–78.Google Scholar
                                                    Haber, R. N. (1983) The impending demise of the icon: The role of iconic processes in information processing theories of perception. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6:1–11.Google Scholar
                                                    Hagoort, P. (2009) Reflections on the neurobiology of syntax. In: Biological foundations and origin of syntax. Strüngmann Forum Reports, volume 3, ed. Bickerton, D. & Szathmáry, E., pp. 279–96. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Hahn, U. & Nakisa, R. C. (2000) German inflection: Single route or dual route? Cognitive Psychology 41:313–60.Google Scholar
                                                    Hale, J. (2001) A probabilistic Earley parser as a psycholinguistic model. Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Pittsburgh, PA, June 2–7, 2001, pp. 159–66. Association for Computational Linguistics.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Hale, J. (2006) Uncertainty about the rest of the sentence. Cognitive Science 30:609–42.Google Scholar
                                                    Haspelmath, M. (1999) Why is grammaticalization irreversible? Linguistics 37:1043–68.Google Scholar
                                                    Hasson, U., Yang, E., Vallines, I., Heeger, D. J. & Rubin, N. (2008) A hierarchy of temporal receptive windows in human cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience 28(10):2539–50.Google Scholar
                                                    Hauser, M. D., Chomsky, N. & Fitch, W. T. (2002) The faculty of language: What is it, who has it, and how did it evolve? Science 298:1569–79.Google Scholar
                                                    Hawkins, J. A. (2004) Efficiency and complexity in grammars. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Hawkins, J. A. (2009) Language universals and the performance-grammar correspondence hypothesis. In: Language universals, ed. Christiansen, M. H., Collins, C. & Edelman, S., pp. 54–78. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Hay, J. (2000) Morphological adjacency constraints: A synthesis. Proceedings of Student Conference in Linguistics 9. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 36:17–29.Google Scholar
                                                    Heathcote, A., Brown, S. & Mewhort, D. J. K. (2000) The power law repealed: The case for an exponential law of practice. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 7:185–207.Google Scholar
                                                    Heider, P., Dery, J. & Roland, D. (2014) The processing of it object relative clauses: Evidence against a fine-grained frequency account. Journal of Memory and Language 75:58–76.Google Scholar
                                                    Heine, B. & Kuteva, T. (2002) World lexicon of grammaticalization. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Heine, B. & Kuteva, T. (2007) The genesis of grammar. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Hinojosa, J. A., Moreno, E. M., Casado, P., Munõz, F. & Pozo, M. A. (2005) Syntactic expectancy: An event-related potentials study. Neuroscience Letters 378:34–39.Google Scholar
                                                    Hintzman, D. L. (1988) Judgments of frequency and recognition memory in a multiple-trace memory model. Psychological Review 95:528–51.Google Scholar
                                                    Hinton, G. E. & Sejnowski, T. J. (1986) Learning and relearning in Boltzmann machines . In: Graphical models: Foundations of neural computation, ed. Irwin, M. J. & Sejnowski, T. J., pp. 45–76. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Hoey, M. (2005) Lexical priming: A new theory of words and language. Psychology Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Hofmeister, P. & Sag, I. A. (2010) Cognitive constraints and island effects. Language 86:366–415.Google Scholar
                                                    Honey, C. J., Thesen, T., Donner, T. H., Silbert, L. J., Carlson, C. E., Devinsky, O., Doyle, W. K., Rubin, N., Heeger, D. J. & Hasson, U. (2012) Slow cortical dynamics and the accumulation of information over long timescales. Neuron 76(2):423–34.Google Scholar
                                                    Hopper, P. J. & Traugott, E. C. (1993) Grammaticalization. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Hruschka, D., Christiansen, M. H., Blythe, R. A., Croft, W., Heggarty, P., Mufwene, S. S., Pierrehumbert, J. H. & Poplack, S. (2009) Building social cognitive models of language change. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 13:464–69.Google Scholar
                                                    Hsu, A., Chater, N. & Vitányi, P. (2011) The probabilistic analysis of language acquisition: Theoretical, computational, and experimental analysis. Cognition 120:380–90.Google Scholar
                                                    Hudson Kam, C. L. & Newport, E. L. (2005) Regularizing unpredictable variation: The roles of adult and child learners in language formation and change. Language Learning and Development 1:151–95.Google Scholar
                                                    Hurford, J. (1999) The evolution of language and languages. In: The evolution of culture, ed. Dunbar, R., Knight, C. & Power, C., pp. 173–93. Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Jackendoff, R. (2007) A parallel architecture perspective on language processing. Brain Research 1146:2–22.Google Scholar
                                                    Jacoby, L. L., Baker, J. G. & Brooks, L. R. (1989) The priority of the specific: Episodic effects in picture identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 15:275–81.Google Scholar
                                                    Jaeger, T. (2010) Redundancy and reduction: Speakers manage syntactic information density. Cognitive Psychology 61:23–62.Google Scholar
                                                    Jaeger, T. F. & Tily, H. (2011) On language “utility”: Processing complexity and communicative efficiency. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science 2:323–35.Google Scholar
                                                    Jensen, M. S., Yao, R., Street, W. N. & Simons, D. J. (2011) Change blindness and inattentional blindness. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science 2:529–46.Google Scholar
                                                    Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983) Mental models: Towards a cognitive science of language, inference, and consciousness. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Jolsvai, H., McCauley, S. M. & Christiansen, M. H. (2013) Meaning overrides frequency in idiomatic and compositional multiword chunks. In: Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, ,Berlin, Germany, July 31–August 3, 2013,, ed. Knauff, M., Pauen, M., Sebanz, N. & Wachsmuth, I., pp. 692–97. Cognitive Science Society.Google Scholar
                                                    Jones, G. (2012) Why chunking should be considered as an explanation for developmental change before short-term memory capacity and processing speed. Frontiers in Psychology 3:167. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00167.Google Scholar
                                                    Jurafsky, D. (1996) A probabilistic model of lexical and syntactic access and disambiguation. Cognitive Science 20:137–94.Google Scholar
                                                    Jurafsky, D., Bell, A., Gregory, M. L. & Raymond, W. D. (2001) Probabilistic relations between words: Evidence from reduction in lexical production. In: Frequency and the emergence of linguistic structure, ed. Bybee, J. L. & Hopper, P., pp. 229–54. John Benjamins.Google Scholar
                                                    Jurafsky, D., Martin, J. H., Kehler, A., Vander Linden, K. & Ward, N. (2000) Speech and language processing: An introduction to natural language processing, computational linguistics, and speech recognition. Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
                                                    Kamide, Y. (2008) Anticipatory processes in sentence processing. Language and Linguistic Compass 2:647–70.Google Scholar
                                                    Kamin, L. J. (1969) Predictability, surprise, attention and conditioning. In: Punishment and aversive behavior, ed. Campbell, B. A., Church, R. M., pp. 279–96. Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
                                                    Karlsson, F. (2007) Constraints on multiple center-embedding of clauses. Journal of Linguistics 43:365–92.Google Scholar
                                                    Kempson, R., Meyer-Viol, W. & Gabbay, D. (2001) Dynamic syntax: The flow of language understanding. Blackwell.Google Scholar
                                                    Kimball, J. (1973) Seven principles of surface structure parsing in natural language. Cognition 2:15–47.Google Scholar
                                                    Kirby, S., Cornish, H. & Smith, K. (2008) Cumulative cultural evolution in the laboratory: An experimental approach to the origins of structure in human language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105:10681–85.Google Scholar
                                                    Kluender, R. & Kutas, M. (1993) Subjacency as a processing phenomenon. Language & Cognitive Processes 8:573–633.Google Scholar
                                                    Konopka, A. E. (2012) Planning ahead: How recent experience with structures and words changes the scope of linguistic planning. Journal of Memory and Language 66:143–62.Google Scholar
                                                    Kraljic, T. & Brennan, S. (2005) Prosodic disambiguation of syntactic structure: For the speaker or for the addressee? Cognitive Psychology 50:194–231.Google Scholar
                                                    Kutas, M., Federmeier, K. D. & Urbach, T. P. (2014) The “negatives” and “positives” of prediction in language. In: The Cognitive Neurosciences V, ed. Gazzaniga, M. S. & Mangun, G. R., pp. 649–56. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Lashley, K. S. (1951) The problem of serial order in behavior. In: Cerebral mechanisms in behavior: The Hixon Symposium, ed. Jeffress, L. A., pp. 112–46. Wiley.Google Scholar
                                                    Lerdahl, F. & Jackendoff, R. (1983) A generative theory of tonal music. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Lerner, Y., Honey, C. J., Silbert, L. J. & Hasson, U. (2011) Topographic mapping of a hierarchy of temporal receptive windows using a narrated story. Journal of Neuroscience 31:2906–15.Google Scholar
                                                    Levelt, W. J. M. (2001) Spoken word production: A theory of lexical access. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:13464–71.Google Scholar
                                                    Levinson, S. C. (2000) Presumptive meanings: The theory of generalized conversational implicature. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Levinson, S. C. (2013) Recursion in pragmatics. Language 89:149–62.Google Scholar
                                                    Levy, R. (2008) Expectation-based syntactic comprehension. Cognition 106:1126–77.Google Scholar
                                                    Levy, R., Bicknell, K., Slattery, T. & Rayner, K. (2009) Eye movement evidence that readers maintain and act on uncertainty about past linguistic input. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:21086–90.Google Scholar
                                                    Lightfoot, D. (1989) The child's trigger experience: Degree-0 learnability. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:321–34.Google Scholar
                                                    Logan, G. D. (1988) Toward an instance theory of automatization. Psychological Review 95:492–527.Google Scholar
                                                    Louwerse, M. M., Dale, R., Bard, E. G. & Jeuniaux, P. (2012) Behavior matching in multimodal communication is synchronized. Cognitive Science 36:1404–26.Google Scholar
                                                    Lupyan, G. & Christiansen, M. H. (2002) Case, word order, and language learnability: Insights from connectionist modeling. In: Proceedings of the 24th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Fairfax, VA, August 2002, pp. 596–601, ed. Gray, W. D. & Schunn, C.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
                                                    MacDonald, M. C. (1994) Probabilistic constraints and syntactic ambiguity resolution. Language and Cognitive Processes 9:157–201.Google Scholar
                                                    MacDonald, M. C. (2013) How language production shapes language form and comprehension. Frontiers in Psychology 4:226. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00226.Google Scholar
                                                    MacDonald, M. C. & Christiansen, M. H. (2002) Reassessing working memory: A comment on Just & Carpenter (1992) and Waters & Caplan (1996). Psychological Review 109:35–54.Google Scholar
                                                    MacDonald, M. C., Pearlmutter, M. & Seidenberg, M. (1994) The lexical nature of ambiguity resolution. Psychological Review 101:676–703.Google Scholar
                                                    MacKay, D. J. (2003) Information theory, inference and learning algorithms. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Magyari, L. & de Ruiter, J. P. (2012) Prediction of turn-ends based on anticipation of upcoming words. Frontiers in Psychology 3:376. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00376 Google Scholar
                                                    Mani, N. & Huettig, F. (2012) Prediction during language processing is a piece of cake – but only for skilled producers. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 38:843–47.Google Scholar
                                                    Manning, C. D. & Schütze, H. (1999) Foundations of statistical natural language processing. MIT press.Google Scholar
                                                    Marchman, V. A. & Fernald, A. (2008) Speed of word recognition and vocabulary knowledge in infancy predict cognitive and language outcomes in later childhood. Developmental Science 11:F9–16.Google Scholar
                                                    Marcus, M. P. (1980) Theory of syntactic recognition for natural languages. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Marr, D. (1976) Early processing of visual information. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B: Biological Sciences 275:483–519.Google Scholar
                                                    Marr, D. (1982) Vision. W. H. Freeman.Google Scholar
                                                    Marslen-Wilson, W. D. (1975) Sentence perception as an interactive parallel process. Science 189:226–28.Google Scholar
                                                    Marslen-Wilson, W. D., Tyler, L. K. & Koster, C. (1993) Integrative processes in utterance resolution. Journal of Memory and Language 32:647–66.Google Scholar
                                                    Martin, R. C. & He, T. (2004) Semantic STM and its role in sentence processing: A replication. Brain and Language 89:76–82.Google Scholar
                                                    Martin, R. C., Shelton, J. R. & Yaffee, L. S. (1994) Language processing and working memory: Neuropsychological evidence for separate phonological and semantic capacities. Journal of Memory and Language 33:83–111.Google Scholar
                                                    McCauley, S. M. & Christiansen, M. H. (2011) Learning simple statistics for language comprehension and production: The CAPPUCCINO model. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Boston, MA, July 2011. pp. 619–24, ed. Carlson, L. A., Hölscher, C. & Shipley, T. F.. Cognitive Science Society.Google Scholar
                                                    McCauley, S. M. & Christiansen, M. H. (2014b) Reappraising lexical specificity in children's early syntactic combinations. In: Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. pp. 1000–1005. ed. Bello, P., Guarini, M., McShane, M., & Scassellati, B.. Cognitive Science Society.Google Scholar
                                                    McCloskey, M. & Cohen, N. J. (1989) Catastrophic interference in connectionist networks: The sequential learning problem. Psychology of Learning and Motivation 24:109–65.Google Scholar
                                                    Mermillod, M., Bugaïska, A. & Bonin, P. (2013) The stability-plasticity dilemma: Investigating the continuum from catastrophic forgetting to age-limited learning effects. Frontiers in Psychology 4:504. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00504.Google Scholar
                                                    Meyer, D. E. & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971) Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology 90:227–34.Google Scholar
                                                    Meyer, A. S. (1996) Lexical access in phrase and sentence production: Results from picture-word interference experiments. Journal of Memory and Language 35:477–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Miller, G. A. (1956) The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review 63(2):81–97.Google Scholar
                                                    Miller, G. A., Galanter, E. & Pribram, K. H. (1960) Plans and the structure of behavior. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
                                                    Miller, G. A. & Taylor, W. G. (1948) The perception of repeated bursts of noise. Journal of the Acoustic Society of America 20:171–82.Google Scholar
                                                    Misyak, J. B. & Christiansen, M. H. (2010) When “more” in statistical learning means “less” in language: Individual differences in predictive processing of adjacent dependencies. In: Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Cognitive Science Society Conference, Portland, OR, August 11–14, 2010, ed. Catrambone, R. & Ohlsson, S., pp. 2686–91. Cognitive Science Society.Google Scholar
                                                    Monaghan, P. & Christiansen, M. H. (2008) Integration of multiple probabilistic cues in syntax acquisition. In: Trends in corpus research: Finding structure in data (TILAR Series), ed. Behrens, H., pp. 139–63. John Benjamins.Google Scholar
                                                    Morgan, J. L. & Demuth, K. (1996) Signal to syntax: Bootstrapping from speech to grammar in early acquisition. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
                                                    Morrill, G. (2010) Categorial grammar: Logical syntax, semantics, and processing. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Mufwene, S. (2008) Language evolution: Contact, competition and change. Continuum International Publishing Group.Google Scholar
                                                    Murdock, B. B. Jr., (1968) Serial order effects in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology Monograph Supplement 1–15.Google Scholar
                                                    Nadig, A. S. & Sedivy, J. C. (2002) Evidence of perspective-taking constraints in children's on-line reference resolution. Psychological Science 13:329–36.Google Scholar
                                                    Navon, D. & Miller, J. O. (2002) Queuing or sharing? A critical evaluation of the single-bottleneck notion. Cognitive Psychology 44:193–251.Google Scholar
                                                    Neal, R. M. & Hinton, G. E. (1998) A view of the EM algorithm that justifies incremental, sparse, and other variants. In: Learning in graphical models, ed. Jordan, M. I., pp. 355–68. Kluwer.Google Scholar
                                                    Nevins, A. (2010) Locality in vowel harmony. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Newell, A. & Rosenbloom, P. S. (1981) Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice. In: Cognitive skills and their acquisition, ed. Anderson, J. R., pp. 1–55. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
                                                    Nicol, J. L., Forster, K. I. & Veres, C. (1997) Subject-verb agreement processes in comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language 36:569–87.Google Scholar
                                                    Niyogi, P. & Berwick, R. C. (1996) A language learning model for finite parameter spaces. Cognition 61:161–93.Google Scholar
                                                    Norman, D. A. & Shallice, T. (1986) Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. In: Consciousness and self-regulation, ed. Davidson, R. J., Schwartz, G. E. & Shapiro, D., pp. 1–18. Plenum Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Nosofsky, R. M. (1986) Attention, similarity, and the identification–categorization relationship. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 115:39.Google Scholar
                                                    Noveck, I. A. & Reboul, A. (2008) Experimental pragmatics: A Gricean turn in the study of language. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 12:425–31.Google Scholar
                                                    Nygaard, L. C., Sommers, M. S. & Pisoni, D. B. (1994) Speech perception as a talker-contingent process. Psychological Science 5:42–46.Google Scholar
                                                    O'Grady, W. (2005) Syntactic carpentry: An emergentist approach to syntax. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
                                                    O'Grady, W. (2013) The illusion of language acquisition. Approaches to Bilingualism 3:253–85.Google Scholar
                                                    O'Grady, W. (2015a) Anaphora and the case for emergentism. In: The handbook of language emergence, ed. MacWhinney, B. & O'Grady, W., pp. 100–22. Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
                                                    Oaksford, M. & Chater, N., eds. (1998) Rational models of cognition. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Oaksford, M. & Chater, N. (2007) Bayesian rationality. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Ohno, T. & Mito, S. (1988) Just-in-time for today and tomorrow. Productivity Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Orr, D. B., Friedman, H. L. & Williams, J. C. C. (1965) Trainability of listening comprehension of speeded discourse. Journal of Educational Psychology 56:148–56.Google Scholar
                                                    Orwin, M., Howes, C. & Kempson, R. (2013) Language, music and interaction. College Publications.Google Scholar
                                                    Padó, U., Crocker, M. W. & Keller, F. (2009) A probabilistic model of semantic plausibility in sentence processing. Cognitive Science 33:794–838.Google Scholar
                                                    Pani, J. R. (2000) Cognitive description and change blindness. Visual Cognition 7:107–26.Google Scholar
                                                    Pashler, H. (1988) Familiarity and visual change detection. Perception and Psychophysics 44:369–78.Google Scholar
                                                    Pavani, F. & Turatto, M. (2008) Change perception in complex auditory scenes. Perception and Psychophysics 70:619–29.Google Scholar
                                                    Pearlmutter, N. J., Garnsey, S. M. & Bock, K. (1999) Agreement processes in sentence comprehension. Journal of Memory and Language 41:427–56.Google Scholar
                                                    Pellegrino, F., Coupé, C. & Marsico, E. (2011) A cross-language perspective on speech information rate. Language 87:539–58.Google Scholar
                                                    Pereira, P. & Schabes, Y. (1992) Inside–outside reestimation from partially bracketed corpora. Proceedings of the 30th Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics, Newark, DE, June 28–July 2, 1992, pp. 128–35, ed. Thompson, H. S.. Association for Computational Linguistics.Google Scholar
                                                    Phillips, B. S. (2006) Word frequency and lexical diffusion. Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
                                                    Phillips, C. (1996) Merge right: An approach to constituency conflicts. In: Proceedings of the Fourteenth West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics, volume 15, Los Angeles, CA, March 1994, pp. 381–95, ed. Camacho, J., Choueiri, L. & Watanabe, M.. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Phillips, C. (2003) Linear order and constituency. Linguistic Inquiry 34:37–90.Google Scholar
                                                    Piantadosi, S., Tily, H. & Gibson, E. (2011) Word lengths are optimized for efficient communication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108:3526–29.Google Scholar
                                                    Piantadosi, S., Tily, H. & Gibson, E. (2012) The communicative function of ambiguity in language. Cognition 122:280–91.Google Scholar
                                                    Pickering, M. J. & Branigan, H. P. (1998) The representation of verbs: Evidence from syntactic priming in language production. Journal of Memory and Language 39:633–51.Google Scholar
                                                    Pickering, M. J. & Garrod, S. (2004) Toward a mechanistic psychology of dialogue. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27:169–226.Google Scholar
                                                    Pickering, M. J. & Garrod, S. (2007) Do people use language production to make predictions during comprehension? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11:105–10.Google Scholar
                                                    Pickering, M. J. & Garrod, S. (2013a) An integrated theory of language production and comprehension. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 36: 329–47.Google Scholar
                                                    Pierrehumbert, J. (2002) Word-specific phonetics. Laboratory Phonology VII. Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
                                                    Pine, J. M., Freudenthal, D., Krajewski, G. & Gobet, F. (2013) Do young children have adult-like syntactic categories? Zipf's law and the case of the determiner. Cognition 127:345–60.Google Scholar
                                                    Pinker, S. (1984) Language learnability and language development. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Pinker, S. (1994) The language instinct: How the mind creates language. William Morrow.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Pinker, S. & Bloom, P. (1990) Natural language and natural selection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 13:707–27.Google Scholar
                                                    Pinker, S. & Prince, A. (1988) On language and connectionism: Analysis of a parallel distributed processing model of language acquisition. Cognition 28:73–193.Google Scholar
                                                    Potter, M. C. & Lombardi, L. (1998) Syntactic priming in immediate recall of sentences. Journal of Memory and Language 38:265–82.Google Scholar
                                                    Poulet, J. F. A. & Hedwig, B. (2006) New insights into corollary discharges mediated by identified neural pathways. Trends in Neurosciences 30:14–21.Google Scholar
                                                    Pulman, S. G. (1985) A parser that doesn't. Proceedings of the Second European Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Geneva, Switzerland, March 1985, pp. 128–35, Association for Computational Linguistics.Google Scholar
                                                    Ratcliff, R. (1990) Connectionist models of recognition memory: Constraints imposed by learning and forgetting functions. Psychological Review 97:285–308.Google Scholar
                                                    Reali, F. & Christiansen, M. H. (2007a) Processing of relative clauses is made easier by frequency of occurrence. Journal of Memory and Language 57:1–23.Google Scholar
                                                    Reali, F. & Christiansen, M. H. (2007b) Word-chunk frequencies affect the processing of pronominal object-relative clauses. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 60:161–70.Google Scholar
                                                    Redington, M., Chater, N. & Finch, S. (1998) Distributional information: A powerful cue for acquiring syntactic categories. Cognitive Science 22:425–469.Google Scholar
                                                    Remez, R. E., Fellowes, J. M. & Rubin, P. E. (1997) Talker identification based on phonetic information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 23:651–66.Google Scholar
                                                    Remez, R. E., Ferro, D. F., Dubowski, K. R., Meer, J., Broder, R. S. & Davids, M. L. (2010) Is desynchrony tolerance adaptable in the perceptual organization of speech? Attention, Perception, and Psychophysics 72:2054–58.Google Scholar
                                                    Richerson, P. J. & Christiansen, M. H., eds. (2013) Cultural evolution: Society, technology, language and religion. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Roland, D., Elman, J. & Ferreira, V. (2006) Why is that? Structural prediction and ambiguity resolution in a very large corpus of English sentences. Cognition 98:245–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Rumelhart, D. E. & McClelland, J. L. (1986) On learning the past tenses of English verbs. In: Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Volume 2: Psychological and biological models, ed. McClelland, J. L., Rumelhart, D. E. & the PDP Research Group, pp. 216–71. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J. L. & the PDP Research Group (1986a) Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, volumes 1 and 2. MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
                                                    Saad, D., ed. (1998) On-line learning in neural networks. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Sagarra, N. & Herschensohn, J. (2010) The role of proficiency and working memory in gender and number processing in L1 and L2 Spanish. Lingua 120:2022–39.Google Scholar
                                                    Sahin, N. T., Pinker, S., Cash, S. S., Schomer, D. & Halgren, E. (2009) Sequential processing of lexical, grammatical, and articulatory information within Broca's area. Science 326:445.Google Scholar
                                                    Sandler, W., Meir, I., Padden, C. & Aronoff, M. (2005) The emergence of grammar: Systematic structure in a new language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102:2661–65.Google Scholar
                                                    Schmidt, R. A. & Wrisberg, C. A. (2004) Motor learning and performance, third edition. Human Kinetics.Google Scholar
                                                    Schultz, W., Dayan, P. & Montague, P. R. (1997) A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science 275:1593–99.Google Scholar
                                                    Seidenberg, M. S. (1997) Language acquisition and use: Learning and applying probabilistic constraints. Science 275:1599–603.Google Scholar
                                                    Seidenberg, M. S. & McClelland, J. L. (1989) A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review 96:523–68.Google Scholar
                                                    Shannon, C. (1948) A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal 27:623–56.Google Scholar
                                                    Siegel, D. (1978) The adjacency constraint and the theory of morphology. North East Linguistics Society 8:189–97.Google Scholar
                                                    Sigman, M. & Dehaene, S. (2005) Parsing a cognitive task: A characterization of the mind's bottleneck. PLOS Biology 3(2):e37. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030037.Google Scholar
                                                    Silbert, L. J., Honey, C. J., Simony, E., Poeppel, D. & Hasson, U. (2014) Coupled neural systems underlie the production and comprehension of naturalistic narrative speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111:E4687–96.Google Scholar
                                                    Simon, H. A. (1956) Rational choice and the structure of the environment. Psychological Review 63:129–38.Google Scholar
                                                    Simon, H. A. (1982) Models of bounded rationality: Empirically grounded economic reason. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Simons, D. J. & Levin, D. T. (1998) Failure to detect changes to people during a real-world interaction. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 5:644–49.Google Scholar
                                                    Siyanova-Chanturia, A., Conklin, K. & Van Heuven, W. J. B. (2011) Seeing a phrase “time and again” matters: The role of phrasal frequency in the processing of multiword sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 37:776–784.Google Scholar
                                                    Smith, K. & Kirby, S. (2008) Cultural evolution: Implications for understanding the human language faculty and its evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363:3591–603.Google Scholar
                                                    Smith, K. & Wonnacott, E. (2010) Eliminating unpredictable variation through iterated learning. Cognition 116:444–49.Google Scholar
                                                    Smith, M. & Wheeldon, L. (1999) High level processing scope in spoken sentence production. Cognition 73:205–46.Google Scholar
                                                    Snedeker, J. & Trueswell, J. (2003) Using prosody to avoid ambiguity: Effects of speaker awareness and referential context. Journal of Memory and Language 48:103–30.Google Scholar
                                                    Sperling, G. (1960) The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 74:1–29.Google Scholar
                                                    Staub, A. & Clifton, C. Jr., (2006) Syntactic prediction in language comprehension: Evidence from either … or. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 32:425–36.Google Scholar
                                                    Steedman, M. (1987) Combinatory grammars and parasitic gaps. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 5:403–39.Google Scholar
                                                    Steedman, M. (2000) The syntactic process. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Stephens, G. J., Honey, C. J. & Hasson, U. (2013) A place for time: The spatiotemporal structure of neural dynamics during natural audition. Journal of Neurophysiology 110(9):2019–26.Google Scholar
                                                    Stephens, G. J., Silbert, L. J. & Hasson, U. (2010) Speaker–listener neural coupling underlies successful communication. PNAS 107:14425–30.Google Scholar
                                                    Stivers, T., Enfield, N. J., Brown, P., Englert, C., Hayashi, M., Heinemann, T., Hoymann, G., Rossano, F., de Ruiter, J. P., Yoon, K.-Y. & Levinson, S. C. (2009) Universals and cultural variation in turn-taking in conversation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:10587–92.Google Scholar
                                                    Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1986) Some developments in research on language behavior. In: Behavioral and social science: Fifty years of discovery: In commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of the “Ogburn Report,” recent social trends in the United States, ed. Smelser, N. J. & Gerstein, D. R., pp. 208–48. National Academy Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Sturt, P. & Crocker, M. W. (1996) Monotonic syntactic processing: A cross-linguistic study of attachment and reanalysis. Language and Cognitive Processes 11:449–94.Google Scholar
                                                    Swaab, T., Brown, C. M. & Hagoort, P. (2003) Understanding words in sentence contexts: The time course of ambiguity resolution. Brain and Language 86:326–43.Google Scholar
                                                    Tanenhaus, M. K., Spivey-Knowlton, M. J., Eberhard, K. M. & Sedivy, J. C. (1995) Integration of visual and linguistic information in spoken language comprehension. Science 268:1632–34.Google Scholar
                                                    Tenenbaum, J. B., Kemp, C., Griffiths, T. L. & Goodman, N. D. (2011) How to grow a mind: Statistics, structure, and abstraction. Science 331:1279–85.Google Scholar
                                                    Thornton, R., MacDonald, M. C. & Gil, M. (1999) Pragmatic constraint on the interpretation of complex noun phrases in Spanish and English. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 25:1347–65.Google Scholar
                                                    Tomasello, M. (1992) First verbs: A case study of early grammatical development. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Tomasello, M. (2003) Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Townsend, D. J. & Bever, T. G. (2001) Sentence comprehension: The integration of habits and rules. MIT Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Treisman, A. (1964) Selective attention in man. British Medical Bulletin 20:12–16.Google Scholar
                                                    Treisman, A. & Schmidt, H. (1982) Illusory conjunctions in the perception of objects. Cognitive Psychology 14:107–41.Google Scholar
                                                    Tremblay, A. & Baayen, H. (2010) Holistic processing of regular four-word sequences: A behavioral and ERP study of the effects of structure, frequency, and probability on immediate free recall. In: Perspectives on formulaic language, ed. Wood, D., pp. 151–67. Continuum International Publishing.Google Scholar
                                                    Tremblay, A., Derwing, B., Libben, G. & Westbury, C. (2011) Processing advantages of lexical bundles: Evidence from self-paced reading and sentence recall tasks. Language Learning 61:569–613.Google Scholar
                                                    Trudgill, P. (2011) Sociolinguistic typology: Social determinants of linguistic complexity. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Trueswell, J. C. & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1994) Towards a lexicalist framework of constraint-based syntactic ambiguity resolution. In: Perspectives on sentence processing, ed. Clifton, C., Frazier, L. & Rayner, K., pp. 155–79. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
                                                    Trueswell, J. C., Sekerina, I., Hill, N. M. & Logrip, M. L. (1999) The kindergarten-path effect: Studying on-line sentence processing in young children. Cognition 73:89–134.Google Scholar
                                                    Trueswell, J. C., Tanenhaus, M. K. & Garnsey, S. M. (1994) Semantic influences on parsing: Use of thematic role information in syntactic ambiguity resolution. Journal of Memory and Language 33:285–318.Google Scholar
                                                    Trueswell, J. C., Tanenhaus, M. K. & Kello, C. (1993) Verb-specific constraints in sentence processing: Separating effects of lexical preference from garden-paths. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 19:528–53.Google Scholar
                                                    Valian, V., Solt, S. & Stewart, J. (2009) Abstract categories or limited-scope formulae? The case of children's determiners. Journal of Child Language 36:743–78.Google Scholar
                                                    Van Berkum, J. J., Brown, C. M., Zwitserlood, P., Kooijman, V. & Hagoort, P. (2005) Anticipating upcoming words in discourse: Evidence from ERPs and reading times. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 31:443–67.Google Scholar
                                                    van den Brink, D., Brown, C. M. & Hagoort, P. (2001) Electrophysiological evidence for early contextual influences during spoken-word recognition: N200 versus N400 effects. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 13:967–85.Google Scholar
                                                    Van Everbroeck, E. (1999) Language type frequency and learnability: A connectionist appraisal. In: Proceedings of the 21st Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, August 1999, pp. 755–60, ed. Hahn, M. & Stoness, S. C.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
                                                    van Gompel, R. P. & Liversedge, S. P. (2003) The influence of morphological information on cataphoric pronoun assignment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 29:128–39.Google Scholar
                                                    Wang, W. S.-Y. (1969) Competing changes as a cause of residue. Language 45:9–25.Google Scholar
                                                    Wang, W. S.-Y., ed. (1977) The lexicon in phonological change. Mouton.Google Scholar
                                                    Wang, W. S.-Y. & Cheng, C.-C. (1977) Implementation of phonological change: The Shaung-feng Chinese case. In: The lexicon in phonological change, ed. Wang, W. S.-Y., pp. 86–100. Mouton.Google Scholar
                                                    Warren, P. & Marslen-Wilson, W. (1987) Continuous uptake of acoustic cues in spoken word recognition. Perception & Psychophysics 41:262–75.Google Scholar
                                                    Warren, R. M., Obusek, C. J., Farmer, R. M. & Warren, R. P. (1969) Auditory sequence: Confusion of patterns other than speech or music. Science 164:586–87.Google Scholar
                                                    Wasow, T. & Arnold, J. (2003) Post-verbal constituent ordering in English. In: Determinants of grammatical variation in English, ed. Rohdenburg, G. & Mondorf, B., pp. 119–54. Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar
                                                    Weissenborn, J. & Höhle, B., eds. (2001) Approaches to bootstrapping: Phonological, lexical, syntactic and neurophysiological aspects of early language acquisition. John Benjamins.Google Scholar
                                                    Wicha, N. Y. Y., Moreno, E. M. & Kutas, M. (2004) Anticipating words and their gender: An event-related brain potential study of semantic integration, gender expectancy, and gender agreement in Spanish sentence reading. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16:1272–88.Google Scholar
                                                    Wilbur, R. B. & Nolkn, S. B. (1986) The duration of syllables in American Sign Language. Language and Speech 29:263–80.Google Scholar
                                                    Wilson, M. & Emmorey, K. (2006) Comparing sign language and speech reveals a universal limit on short-term memory capacity. Psychological Science 17:682–83.Google Scholar
                                                    Winograd, T. (1972) Understanding natural language. Cognitive Psychology 3:1–191.Google Scholar
                                                    Wolpert, D. M., Diedrichsen, J. & Flanagan, J. R. (2011) Principles of sensorimotor learning. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 12:739–51.Google Scholar
                                                    Yang, C. (2002) Knowledge and learning in natural language. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
                                                    Yang, C. (2013) Ontogeny and phylogeny of language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110:6324–27.Google Scholar
                                                    Zhu, L., Chen, Y., Torrable, A., Freeman, W. & Yuille, A. L. (2010) Part and appearance sharing: Recursive compositional models for multi-view multi-object detection. In: IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPRW 2010), San Francisco, CA, June 2010, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).Google Scholar
                                                    Zipf, G. K. (1949) Human behavior and the principle of least effort. Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
                                                    386
                                                    Cited by

                                                    Linked content

                                                    Related commentaries (28) Author response
                                                    Cited by
                                                    Crossref Citations
                                                    Crossref logo
                                                    This article has been cited by the following publications. This list is generated based on data provided by Crossref.
                                                    Siegelman, Noam and Arnon, Inbal 2015. The advantage of starting big: Learning from unsegmented input facilitates mastery of grammatical gender in an artificial language. Journal of Memory and Language, Vol. 85, Issue. , p. 60.
                                                    Christiansen, Morten H. and Chater, Nick 2015. The language faculty that wasn't: a usage-based account of natural language recursion. Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 6, Issue. ,
                                                    Suanda, Sumarga H. Smith, Linda B. and Yu, Chen 2016. The Multisensory Nature of Verbal Discourse in Parent–Toddler Interactions. Developmental Neuropsychology, Vol. 41, Issue. 5-8, p. 324.
                                                    Sterelny, Kim 2016. Cumulative Cultural Evolution and the Origins of Language. Biological Theory, Vol. 11, Issue. 3, p. 173.
                                                    Lu, Qian Xu, Chunshan and Liu, Haitao 2016. Can chunking reduce syntactic complexity of natural languages?. Complexity, Vol. 21, Issue. S2, p. 33.
                                                    Hernández-Fernández, Antoni and Ferrer-i-Cancho, Ramon 2016. The Infochemical Core. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, Vol. 23, Issue. 2, p. 133.
                                                    Mauranen, Anna 2016. Temporality in speech – Linear Unit Grammar. English Text Construction, Vol. 9, Issue. 1, p. 77.
                                                    Huettig, Falk and Mani, Nivedita 2016. Is prediction necessary to understand language? Probably not. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, Vol. 31, Issue. 1, p. 19.
                                                    Lupyan, Gary and Dale, Rick 2016. Why Are There Different Languages? The Role of Adaptation in Linguistic Diversity. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol. 20, Issue. 9, p. 649.
                                                    Kempson, Ruth Cann, Ronnie Gregoromichelaki, Eleni and Chatzikyriakidis, Stergios 2016. Language as Mechanisms for Interaction. Theoretical Linguistics, Vol. 42, Issue. 3-4, p. 203.
                                                    Chater, Nick McCauley, Stewart M. and Christiansen, Morten H. 2016. Language as skill: Intertwining comprehension and production. Journal of Memory and Language, Vol. 89, Issue. , p. 244.
                                                    Ferrer‐i‐Cancho, Ramon 2016. Compression and the origins of Zipf's law for word frequencies. Complexity, Vol. 21, Issue. S2, p. 409.
                                                    McMurray, Bob 2016. Language at Three Timescales: The Role of Real‐Time Processes in Language Development and Evolution. Topics in Cognitive Science, Vol. 8, Issue. 2, p. 393.
                                                    Vogelzang, Margreet Mills, Anne C. Reitter, David Van Rij, Jacolien Hendriks, Petra and Van Rijn, Hedderik 2017. Toward Cognitively Constrained Models of Language Processing: A Review. Frontiers in Communication, Vol. 2, Issue. ,
                                                    Schiff, Rachel Sasson, Ayelet Star, Galit and Kahta, Shani 2017. The role of feedback in implicit and explicit artificial grammar learning: a comparison between dyslexic and non-dyslexic adults. Annals of Dyslexia, Vol. 67, Issue. 3, p. 333.
                                                    Lupyan, Gary 2017. Changing What You See by Changing What You Know: The Role of Attention. Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 8, Issue. ,
                                                    Liu, Haitao Xu, Chunshan and Liang, Junying 2017. Dependency distance: A new perspective on syntactic patterns in natural languages. Physics of Life Reviews, Vol. 21, Issue. , p. 171.
                                                    McCauley, Stewart M. and Christiansen, Morten H. 2017. Computational Investigations of Multiword Chunks in Language Learning. Topics in Cognitive Science, Vol. 9, Issue. 3, p. 637.
                                                    Reali, Florencia 2017. Acceptability of Dative Argument Structure in Spanish: Assessing Semantic and Usage‐Based Factors. Cognitive Science, Vol. 41, Issue. 8, p. 2170.
                                                    Frisson, Steven Harvey, David R. and Staub, Adrian 2017. No prediction error cost in reading: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Memory and Language, Vol. 95, Issue. , p. 200.
                                                    Download full list
                                                    ×

                                                    Cancel
                                                    Confirm
                                                    ×
                                                    Morty Proxy This is a proxified and sanitized view of the page, visit original site.

                                                    Save article to Kindle

                                                    To send this article to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about sending to your Kindle. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

                                                    Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

                                                    Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

                                                    The Now-or-Never bottleneck: A fundamental constraint on language
                                                    Available formats
                                                    ×

                                                    Save article to Dropbox

                                                    To save this article to your Dropbox account, please select one or more formats and confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you used this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your Dropbox account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

                                                    The Now-or-Never bottleneck: A fundamental constraint on language
                                                    Available formats
                                                    ×

                                                    Save article to Google Drive

                                                    To save this article to your Google Drive account, please select one or more formats and confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you used this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your Google Drive account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

                                                    The Now-or-Never bottleneck: A fundamental constraint on language
                                                    Available formats
                                                    ×
                                                    ×

                                                    Reply to: Submit a response

                                                    Contents help
                                                    Close Contents help

                                                    - No HTML tags allowed
                                                    - Web page URLs will display as text only
                                                    - Lines and paragraphs break automatically
                                                    - Attachments, images or tables are not permitted

                                                    Please enter your response.

                                                    Your details

                                                    Email help
                                                    Close Email help

                                                    Your email address will be used in order to notify you when your comment has been reviewed by the moderator and in case the author(s) of the article or the moderator need to contact you directly.

                                                    Please enter a valid email address.
                                                    You have entered the maximum number of contributors

                                                    Conflicting interests

                                                    Do you have any conflicting interests? * Conflicting interests help

                                                    Close Conflicting interests help

                                                    Please list any fees and grants from, employment by, consultancy for, shared ownership in or any close relationship with, at any time over the preceding 36 months, any organisation whose interests may be affected by the publication of the response. Please also list any non-financial associations or interests (personal, professional, political, institutional, religious or other) that a reasonable reader would want to know about in relation to the submitted work. This pertains to all the authors of the piece, their spouses or partners.