Boethius

Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius

Boethius teaching his students (initial in a 1385 Italian manuscript of the Consolation of Philosophy.)
Full name	Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius
Born	Rome 480 AD
Died	Pavia 524/5 AD
Era	Medieval philosophy
Region	Western philosophy
Main interests	problem of universals, religion, music
Notable ideas	The Wheel of Fortune
Influenced by Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Seneca, Plotinus, Porphyry, Saint Augustine, Proclus
Influence on All Medieval philosophy (notably Johannes Scotus Eriugena, Peter Abelard, Saint Albert the Great, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Dante Alighieri)

Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius,^[1][2][3] commonly called Boethius (ca. 480–524 or 525 AD) was a philosopher of the early 6th century. He was born in Rome to an ancient and important family which included emperors Petronius Maximus and Olybrius and many consuls.^[3] His father, Flavius Manlius Boethius, was consul in 487 after Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman Emperor. Boethius, of the noble Anicia family, entered public life at a young age and was already a senator by the age of 25.^[4] Boethius himself was consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths. In 522 he saw his two sons become consuls.^[5] Boethius was imprisoned and eventually executed by King Theodoric the Great,^[6] who suspected him of conspiring with the Eastern Empire. While jailed, Boethius composed his Consolation of Philosophy, a philosophical treatise on fortune, death, and other issues. The Consolation became one of the most popular and influential works of the Middle Ages. A link between Boethius and a mathematical boardgame Rithmomachia has been made.

[edit] Early life

Boethius' exact birth date is unknown.^[3] It is generally established at around 481, the same year of birth as Benedict of Nursia. Boethius was born to a patrician family which had been Christian for about a century. His father Manlius Boethius' line included two popes, and both parents counted Roman emperors among their ancestors.

Although Boethius is believed to have been born into a Christian family, some scholars have conjectured that he abandoned Christianity for paganism, perhaps on his deathbed.^[7] Momigliano argues "many people have turned to Christianity for consolation. Boethius turned to paganism. His Christianity collapsed — it collapsed so thoroughly that perhaps he did not even notice its disappearance." ^[8] However, while this has been a popular idea among scholars of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it does not reflect the majority of current scholarship on the matter.^[9] It is unknown where Boethius received his formidable education in Greek. Historical documents are ambiguous on the subject, but Boethius may have studied in Athens, and perhaps Alexandria.^[10] Since the elder Boethius is recorded as proctor of a school in Alexandria circa 470, the younger Boethius may have received some grounding in the classics from his father or a close relative.

As a result of his education and experience, Boethius entered the service of Theodoric the Great, who in 506 had written him a graceful and complimentary letter about his studies. Theodoric subsequently commissioned the young Boethius to perform many roles.

[edit] Late life

Boethius imprisoned (from 1385 manuscript of the Consolation)

In 522 his two sons, Symmachus and Boethius, received the high honour of being appointed joint consuls; that same year, Boethius accepted the appointment to the position of magister officiorum, the head of all the government and court services.^[10] Also in 520, Boethius was working to revitalize the relationship between the Church in Rome and the Church in Constantinople. This may have led to loss of favour.^[10]

In 523, however, Theodoric ordered Boethius arrested on charges of treason, possibly for a suspected plot with the Byzantine Emperor Justin I, whose religious orthodoxy (in contrast to Theodoric's Arian opinions) increased their political rivalry.^[10] Boethius himself attributes his arrest to the slander of his rivals. Theodoric was feeling threatened by events, however, and several other leading members of the landed elite were arrested and executed at about the same time. Also, because of his previous ties to Theodahad, Boethius apparently found himself on the wrong side in the succession dispute following the untimely death of Eutharic, Theodoric's announced heir. Whatever the cause, Boethius found himself stripped of his title and wealth and imprisoned at Pavia, where he was executed the following year.^[5] Boethius was executed at the young age of 44 years on October 23, 524.^[4] The method of his execution varies in the sources; he was perhaps killed with an axe or a sword, or was clubbed to death. His remains were entombed in the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia. In Dante's Paradise of The Divine Comedy, the spirit of Boethius is pointed out by St. Thomas Aquinas:

Now if thy mental eye conducted be

From light to light as I resound their frame,

The eighth well worth attention thou wilt see.

The soul who pointed out the world's dark ways,

To all who listen, its deceits unfolding.

Beneath in Cieldauro lies the frame

Whence it was driven; from woe and exile to

This fair abode of peace and bliss it came.^[11]

[edit] Works

It has been suggested that some content from this article or section be split into a separate article titled De topicis differnentiis. (Discuss)

Lady Philosophy and Boethius from the Consolation, (Ghent, 1485)

Boethius's best known work is the Consolation of Philosophy (De consolatione philosophiae), which he wrote most likely while in exile under house arrest or in prison while awaiting his execution, but his lifelong project was a deliberate attempt to preserve ancient classical knowledge, particularly philosophy.^[12] This work represented an imaginary dialogue between himself and philosophy, with philosophy being personified by a woman.^[12] The book argues that despite the apparent inequality of the world, there is, in Platonic fashion, a higher power and everything else is secondary to that divine Providence.^[6] There are several manuscripts that have survived and been expansively edited, translated and printed throughout the late 15th century and forward in Europe.^[12] He intended to translate all the works of Aristotle and Plato from the original Greek into Latin.^[13] His completed translations of Aristotle's works on logic were the only significant portions of Aristotle available in Europe until the 12th century. However, some of his translations (such as his treatment of the topoi in The Topics) were mixed with his own commentary, which reflected both Aristotelian and Platonic concepts.^[12]

Unfortunately, the commentaries themselves were lost.^[14] In addition to his commentary on the Topics, Boethius composed two treatises on Topical argumentation, In Ciceronis Topica and De topicis differentiis. The first work has six books, and is largely a response to Cicero's Topica.^[15] The first book of In Ciceronis Topica begins with a dedication to Patricius. It includes distinctions and assertions important to Boethius's overall philosophy, such as his view of the role of philosophy to "establish our judgment concerning the governing of life",^[16] and definitions of logic from Plato, Aristotle and Cicero. He breaks logic into three parts, that which defines, that which divides, and that which deduces.^[17] He asserts there to be three types of arguments, those of necessity, of ready believability, and sophistry.^[18] He follows Aristotle in defining one sort of Topic as the maximal proposition; these are propositions which are somehow shown to be universal or readily believable.^[19] The other sort of Topic, the differentiae, are "Topics that contain and include the maximal propositions"; means of categorizing the Topics which Boethius credits to Cicero.^[20] Book II covers two kinds of topics, those from related things and those from extrinsic topics. Book III discusses the relationship between things studied through Topics, Topics themselves, and the nature of definition. Book IV analyzes partition, designation and relationships between things (such as pairing, numbering, genus and species, etc.). After a review of his terms, Boethius spends Book V discussing Stoic logic and Aristotelian causation. Book VI relates the nature of the Topic to causes.

In Topicis Differentiis has four books; Book I discusses the nature of rhetorical and dialectical Topics together, Boethius's overall purpose being "to show what the Topics are, what their differentiae are, and which are suited for what syllogisms".^[21] He distinguishes between argument (that which constitutes belief) and argumentation (that which demonstrates belief). Propositions are divided into three parts, those that are universal, those that are particular, and those that are somewhere in between.^[22] These distinctions, and others, are applicable to both types of Topical argument, rhetorical and dialectical. Books II and III are primarily focused on Topics of dialectic (syllogisms), while Book IV concentrates on the unit of the rhetorical Topic, the enthymeme. Topical argumentation is at the core of Boethius’s conception of dialectic, which “have categorical rather than conditional conclusions, and he conceives of the discovery of an argument as the discovery of a middle term capable of linking the two terms of the desired conclusion”.^[23] Not only are these texts of paramount importance to the study of Boethius, they are also crucial to the history of topical lore. It is largely due to Boethius that the Topics of Aristotle and Cicero were revived, and the Boethian tradition of topical argumentation spans its influence throughout the Middle Ages and into the early Renaissance: “In the works of Ockham, Buridan, Albert of Saxony, and the Pseudo-Scotus, for instance, many of the rules of consequence bear a strong resemblance to or are simply identical with certain Boethian Topics . . . Boethius’s influence, direct and indirect, on this tradition is enormous”.^[24]

It was also in De Topicis Differentiis that Boethius made a unique contribution to the discourse on dialectic and rhetoric. Topical argumentation for Boethius is dependent upon a new category for the topics discussed by Aristotle and Cicero, and "[u]nlike Aristotle, Boethius recognizes two different types of Topics. First, he says, a Topic is a maximal proposition (maxima propositio), or principle; but there is a second kind of Topic, which he calls the differentia of a maximal proposition..." .^[25] Maximal propositions are "propositions [that are] known per se, and no proof can be found for these.".^[26] This is the basis for the idea that demonstration (or the construction of arguments) is dependent ultimately upon ideas or proofs that are known so well and are so fundamental to human understanding of logic that no other proofs come before it. They must hold true in and of themselves. According to Stump, "the role of maximal propositions in argumentation is to ensure the truth of a conclusion by ensuring the truth of its premises either directly or indirectly.".^[27] These propositions would be used in constructing arguments through the "Differentia," which is the second part of Boethius' theory. This is "the genus of the intermediate in the argument".^[28] So maximal propositions allow room for an argument to be founded in some sense of logic while differentia are critical for the demonstration and construction of arguments.

Boethius’ definition of “differentiae” is that they are “the Topics of arguments...The Topics which are the Differentiae of [maximal] propositions are more universal than those propositions, just as rationality is more universal than man.”.^[29] This is the second part of Boethius’ unique contribution to the field of rhetoric. Differentia operate under maximal propositions to “be of use in finding maximal propositions as well as intermediate terms,” or the premises that follow maximal propositions.^[30]

Though Boethius is drawing from Aristotle’s Topics, Differentiae are not the same as Topics in some ways. Boethius arranges differentia through statements, instead of generalized groups as Aristotle does. Stump articulates the difference. They are “expressed as words or phrases whose expansion into appropriate propositions is neither intended nor readily conceivable”, unlike Aristotle’s clearly defined four groups of Topics. Aristotle had hundreds of topics organized into those four groups, whereas Boethius has twenty-eight “Topics” that are “highly ordered among themselves.”.^[31] This distinction is necessary to understand Boethius as separate from past rhetorical theories.

Maximal propositions and Differentiae belong not only to rhetoric, but also to dialectic. Boethius define dialectic through an analysis of “thesis” and hypothetical propositions. He claims that “[t]here are two kinds of questions. One is that called, ‘thesis’ by the [Greek] dialecticians. This is the kind of question which asks about and discusses things stripped of relation to other circumstances; it is the sort of question dialecticians most frequently dispute about – for example, ‘Is pleasure the greatest good?’ [or] ‘Should one marry?’”.^[32] Dialectic has “dialectical topics” as well as “dialectical-rhetorical topics,” all of which are still discussed in De Topicis Differentiis.^[25]Dialectic, especially in Book I, comprises a major component of Boethius’ discussion on Topics.

Boethius planned to completely translate Plato's Dialogues, but there is no known surviving translation, if it was actually ever begun.^[33]

Boethius intended to pass on the great Greco-Roman culture to future generations by writing manuals on music and astronomy, geometry, and arithmetic.^[4]

Several of Boethius' writings, which were largely influential during the Middle Ages, drew from the thinking of Porphyry and Iamblichus.^[34] Boethius wrote a commentary on the Isagoge by Porphyry,^[35] which highlighted the existence of the problem of universals: whether these concepts are subsistent entities which would exist whether anyone thought of them, or whether they only exist as ideas. This topic concerning the ontological nature of universal ideas was one of the most vocal controversies in medieval philosophy.

Besides these advanced philosophical works, Boethius is also reported to have translated important Greek texts for the topics of the quadrivium ^[33] His loose translation of Nicomachus's treatise on arithmetic (De institutione arithmetica libri duo) and his textbook on music (De institutione musica libri quinque, unfinished) contributed to medieval education.^[35] De arithmetica, begins with modular arithmetic, such as even and odd, evenly-even, evenly-odd, and oddly-even. He then turns to unpredicted complexity by categorizing numbers and parts of numbers.^[36] His translations of Euclid on geometry and Ptolemy on astronomy,^[37] if they were completed, no longer survive. Boethius made Latin translations of Aristotle's De interpretation and Categories with commentaries. These were widely used during the Middle Ages.^[10]

Boethius' De institutione musica, was one of the first musical works to be printed in Venice between the years of 1491 and 1492. It was written toward the beginning of the sixth century and helped medieval authors during the ninth century understand Greek music.^[38]

In his "De Musica", Boethius introduced the fourfold classification of music:

1. Musica mundana — music of the spheres/world
2. Musica humana — harmony of human body and spiritual harmony
3. Musica instrumentalis — instrumental music (incl. human voice)
4. Musica divina — music of the gods

In one of his works within De institutione musica, was to say "Music is so naturally united with us that we cannot be free from it even if we so desired."^[39]

During the Middle Ages, Boethius was connected to several texts that were used to teach liberal arts. Although he did not address the subject of trivium, he did write many treatises explaining the principles of rhetoric, grammar, and logic. During the Middle Ages, his works of these disciplines were commonly used when studying the three elementary arts.^[37]

Cassiodorus' biography of Boethius authorized that Boethius wrote about theology, composed a pastoral poem, and was most famous for his ability to translate works of Greek mathematics and logic.^[40] Boethius also wrote Christian theological treatises, which generally supported the orthodox position against Arianism and other dissident forms of Christianity.^[41] These included On the Trinity, On the Catholic Faith, and a Book against Eutychius and Nestorius.^[34]

Lorenzo Valla described Boethius as the last of the Romans and the first of the scholastic philosophers.^[5] Despite the use of his mathematical texts in the early universities, it is his final work, the Consolation of Philosophy, that assured his legacy in the Middle Ages and beyond. This work is cast as a dialogue between Boethius himself, at first bitter and despairing over his imprisonment, and the spirit of philosophy, depicted as a woman of wisdom and compassion. "Alternately composed in prose and verse,^[34] the Consolation teaches acceptance of hardship in a spirit of philosophical detachment from misfortune." ^[42] Parts of the work are reminiscent of the Socratic method of Plato's dialogues, as the spirit of philosophy questions Boethius and challenges his emotional reactions to adversity. The work was translated into Old English by King Alfred, and into later English by Chaucer and Queen Elizabeth;^[41] many manuscripts survive and it was extensively edited, translated and printed throughout Europe from the 14th century onwards.^[43] Many commentaries on it were compiled and it has been one of the most influential books in European culture. No complete bibliography has ever been assembled but it would run into thousands of items.^[42] "The Boethian Wheel" is a model for Boethius' belief that history is a wheel,^[44] that Boethius uses frequently in the Consolation; it remained very popular throughout the Middle Ages, and is still often seen today. As the wheel turns those that have power and wealth will turn to dust; men may rise from poverty and hunger to greatness, while those who are great may fall with the turn of the wheel. It was represented in the Middle Ages in many relics of art depicting the rise and fall of man. Descriptions of "The Boethian Wheel" can be found in the literature of the Middle Ages from the Romance of the Rose to Chaucer.^[45]

[edit] Veneration

Tomb of Boethius in San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro, Pavia.

Boethius is recognized as a martyr for the Catholic faith by the Roman Martyrology. His cult is held in Pavia and in the Church of Santa Maria in Portico in Rome. His feast day is October 23.^[46] He was declared a saint by the Sacred Congregation of Rites in 1883, and Pope Benedict XVI explains the relevance of Boethius to modern day Christians by linking his teachings to an understanding of Providence.^[47][48]

[edit] Cultural references

Boethius figures prominently in the worldview and philosophical musings of fictional character Ignatius J. Reilly in A Confederacy of Dunces, a novel by John Kennedy Toole. Christopher Eccleston quotes a passage from Consolation of Philosophy during a brief cameo as a homeless man in the movie 24 Hour Party People.

In Chapter 27 of The Screwtape Letters, C.S. Lewis holds Boethius up as an example of timeless wisdom—a "meddlesome" writer, according to his morally inverted character Uncle Screwtape.

Author Tom Shippey has noted several Boethian influences in J.R.R. Tolkien's novel The Lord of the Rings. It is documented fact that Tolkien was very familiar with Alfred the Great's Anglo-Saxon translation of Consolation of Philosophy, known as the Lays of Boethius. Shippey contends that this Christian view of evil is most clearly stated by Boethius: "evil is nothing." He says Tolkien used the corollary that evil cannot create as the basis of Frodo's remark, "the Shadow ... can only mock, it cannot make: not real new things of its own," and related remarks by the Ent Treebeard and the Elvenking Elrond.^[49]

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• James, H. R. (translator) [1897] (2007), The Consolation of Philosophy of Boethius, The University of Adelaide: eBooks @ Adelaide, http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/b/boethius/ .
• Marenbon, John (2004). Boethius. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513407-9. OCLC 191826140 223148558 231973258 50143461 51107445 57459204 63294098 186379876 191826140 223148558 231973258 50143461 51107445 57459204 63294098. 
• Colish, Marcia L. (2002). Medieval foundations of the Western intellectual tradition, 400-1400. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07852-8. OCLC 40752272 52583412 185694056 40752272 52583412. 
• Chadwick, Henry (1981). Boethius, the consolations of music, logic, theology, and philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-826549-2. OCLC 8533668. 
• Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1867). "Boetii De institutione arithmetica libri duo". In Gottfried Friedlein (in Latin). Anicii Manlii Torquati Severini Boetii De institutione arithmetica libri duo: De institutione musica libri quinque. Accedit geometria quae fertur Boetii. in aedibus B.G. Teubneri. pp. 1–173. http://books.google.com/books?id=VwS0VRBsJLgC&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA1,M1. Retrieved 2008-08-03. 
• Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1867). "Boetii De institutione musica libri quinque". In Gottfried Friedlein (in Latin). Anicii Manlii Torquati Severini Boetii De institutione arithmetica libri duo: De institutione musica libri quinque. Accedit geometria quae fertur Boetii. in aedibus B.G. Teubneri. pp. 177–371. http://books.google.com/books?id=VwS0VRBsJLgC&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PRA1-PA177,M1. Retrieved 2008-08-03. 
• John, Donald Attwater; Catherine Rachel (1995). The Penguin dictionary of saints. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-140-51312-4. OCLC 34361179. 
• Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6. 
• Heather, Peter (1996). The Goths. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Marenbon, John (ed.) (2009). The Cambridge Companion to Boethius Cambridge University Press.

[edit] Bibliography

• Papahagi, Adrian, Boethiana Mediaevalia – A Collection of Studies on the Early Medieval Fortune of Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy, Zeta Books, November 2010, ISBN 978-973-1997-79-7.

[edit] Discography

• Carlo Forlivesi, Boethius (2008) for biwa. The piece is included in the CD album SILENZIOSA LUNA (ALCD 76).

[edit] External links

[edit] Works

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Boethius

Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus Boethius

• (English) Works by Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius at Project Gutenberg
• (English) De Musica — Boethius
• (English) De Trinitate (On the Holy Trinity) — Boethius
• (English) Theological Tractates; Christian Classics Ethereal Library
• A 10th century manuscript of Institutio Arithmetica is available online from Lund University, Sweden
• The Geoffrey Freudlin 1885 edition of the Arithmetica, from the Cornell Library Historical Mathematics Monographs
• Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Boethius in .jpg and .tiff format.

[edit] On Boethius

• Blessed Severinus Boethius at Patron Saints Index
• Blackwood, Stephen.The Meters of Boethius: Rhythmic Therapy in the Consolation of Philosophy.
• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Boethius", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Boethius.html .
• Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius entry by John Marenbon in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• The Contribution of Boethius to the Development of Medieval Logic
• Boethius at The Online Library of Liberty
•  "Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913. 
• On Boethius and Cassiodorus — Pope Benedict XVI

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.