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Hadith rejectors (Arabic: رَافِضو الحديث, romanized: Rāfiḍū al-ḥadīth),[1] also known as Hadith deniers,[2] are Muslims who do not accept the authority of hadith. Hadith are sayings attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[3] Different Muslim groups reject hadith for different reasons.

Hadith collections, which Hadith rejectors dismiss as unreliable and untruthful[4]

Some rejectors say hadith are not historically connected to Muhammad or his Sunnah. Others say many hadith go against the Qur'an, so they should not be trusted. Some believe hadith are false or even blasphemous. Some reject hadith as a source of law, and think Islam should be based on the "Qur'an alone". Others say hadith disagree with each other or conflict with reason, science, and archaeology. Some also see hadith as a cause of sectarianism. Some rejectors believe certain religious practices have been passed down through the Living Sunnah, so hadith are not needed to preserve those practices.

Certain Muslims in early Islamic history questioned or rejected hadith. They included members of the Kharijites, who first appeared near the end of the Rashidun Caliphate, and, during the Abbasid Caliphate, Ahl al-Kalam and the Mu'tazilites. In modern times, the number of Hadith rejectors has grown both in the Muslim world and in the West. They come from many different groups, including Neo-Mu'tazilites, Submitters, and Qur'anists, with Qur'anists alone numbering tens of thousands to potentially a million followers globally.

Beliefs and practises

Hadith rejectors dismiss Hadith collections as unreliable and untruthful.[5] They have concerns about how true hadith are and how well they were preserved.[6] According to Dr. Farhad Shafti, Hadith rejectors usually do not consult hadith collections when studying Islamic topics.[7]

Hadith deniers and Hadithists follow different ideas about hadith.[8]

Some Muslims reject the hadith corpus as written in books but still accept the authority of the Sunnah of Muhammad. They also criticise people who say that Muhammad's only job was to deliver the Qur'an and nothing more. They argue the Sunnah is binding, authentic, and preserved through practice, while hadith books are fallible, late, and unreliable. They say hadith writing was banned by Muhammad and by the Rashidun Caliphate in line with Qur'anic guidance. They believe this ban was followed for about a century, and that later innovators broke it and began writing hadith.[9]

Unlike hadith, they believe the Sunnah was preserved through the practice of the Companions and then passed from one generation to the next in a continuous, unbroken chain (mutawatir). They see this as the most accurate and authentic system, free from forgery. Practices they consider part of the Sunnah and the Living Sunnah, and not dependent on hadith books, include Salat (prayer), Hajj, Zakat, and Fasting.[10][11]

Most Hadith rejectors pray three times a day, deriving this structure from their interpretation of Qur'anic verses.[12]

Like the Kharijites and the Mu'tazilites, modern Hadith deniers reject the punishment of stoning for adultery found in hadith. They say the Qur'an contains no verse that supports this punishment.[13]

Hadith rejectors do not believe it is obligatory for Muslim women to cover their hair with a hijab.[14]

Early history

A depiction of Caliph Umar, mentioned in some Muslim sources as banning the writing down of hadith[15][16][17]

Some historical reports say Muhammad prohibited writing down hadith.[18][19][20][21] Other accounts, found mainly in Shia sources but also in some Sunni works, claim Caliph Umar enforced a "ban on hadith," which continued through the rule of the Rashidun Caliphate and into the Umayyad Caliphate, ending only under Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz.[22][23][24] Debates over Umar's policy, along with reports Abu Bakr burned his own hadith collection, represent some of the earliest tensions over the authority and role of hadith.[25]

Twelver Shia polemical writers say Ali ended the ban on writing hadith, but his rule was too short, only four years and nine months, for this change to fully work.[26]

According to a report by al-Baladhuri, author Syed Nadeem Jaffri says Umayyad governor al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf did not believe obeying hadith was compulsory. Another Umayyad leader, the general Amr ibn Sa'id, also did not treat hadith as compulsory. He later attacked Mecca to fight Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr.[27]

In the 7th–8th Century CE, the belief that hadith were part of the Sunnah was a minority position among Muslims. Later, the hadith-based approach to Sunnah was popularised by the Ahl al-Hadith movement, who were opposed by the Mu'tazila.[28]

Early groups

Under Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun, adherents of Kalam were favoured and adherents of Hadith were persecuted[29]

The Kharijites appeared in the late Rashidun Caliphate. A number of Kharijites are said to have rejected the use of hadith.[30] For example, the Bida'iyya, a sub-sect of the Kharijite branch known as the Azariqa, specifically through the lineage of the Khazimiyya, rejected hadith altogether. Like the Bittikhiyya/Batihiyya, another offshoot of the Azariqa, they rejected the five prayers and prayed only two or three times a day.[31][32] The Haruriyyah, who were the first Kharijites, also opposed hadith.[33]

Al-Shafi'i in his Jima al-Ilm refers to members of Ahl al-Kalam who rejected hadith.[34] The group, whose identity is not identified, is believed by scholars to be Mu'tazilite. However, some believe they were Kharijite.[35] Both al-Shafi'i and Ibn Qutayba indicate that objection to hadith was widespread. Ibn Qutayba writes that opponents of hadith had written books that harshly criticized the followers of hadith.[36]

Like the Kharijites, early Ibadis are also said to have rejected hadith while accepting the Sunnah. The founder of Ibadism, Abd Allah ibn Ibad, is likewise said to have rejected the authority of hadith.[37]

According to Eerik Dickinson, Ahl al-Ra'y (The People of Reason) and Ahl al-Kalam (The People of Kalam) were skeptical about hadith authenticity. They doubted most hadith were in fact the words of Muhammad and accepted only mutawatir (mass-transmitted) hadith.[38]

Ahl al-Ra'y remained doubtful of the methods of Ahl al-Hadith who compiled and canonised hadith, with "skepticism" or even "wholesale rejection" of hadith.[39]

Ahl al-Kalam rejected the authority of hadith on the grounds that its corpus was "filled with contradictory, blasphemous, and absurd" reports, and that in jurisprudence, even the smallest doubt about a source was too much. Thus, they believed, the true legacy of prophet Muhammad was to be found first and foremost in the Qur'an.[40][41] According to al-Shafi'i and Ibn Qutayba, Ahl al-Kalam were opponents of hadith and critics of Ahl al-Hadith.[34] They rejected hadith in favour of the living tradition (Sunnah).[42]

Under Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun, adherents of Kalam were favoured and supporters of hadith were dealt harshly. Al-Ma'mun was inclined towards rational inquiry in religious matters, supported the proponents of Kalam and persecuted the adherents of hadith. His two immediate successors, Al-Mu'tasim and Al-Wathiq, followed his policies. Unlike the three caliphs before him, al-Mutawakkil was not inclined to rational inquiry in religious matters, and strove to bolster hadith as a necessary source of the Sunnah.[43]

Early schools of jurisprudence, including parts of the Maliki tradition, also dismissed hadith, holding a non-hadith-based conception of the Sunnah.[44][45]

The Mu'tazila questioned the reliability of hadith.[46] The Mu'tazilites rejected hadith as a basis for Islamic law, even though they accepted the Sunnah and ijma (consensus). Their main argument was hadith, being transmitted by individuals, cannot provide certain knowledge the way the Qur'an does, since the Qur'an's transmission is universally agreed upon by Muslims.[47][48] During the Abbasid Caliphate, especially under al-Ma'mun, the climate of rational thinking allowed Mu'tazilites who openly questioned traditions to clash with Ahl al-Hadith.[49]

The Mu'tazilite thinker Ibrahim al-Nazzam relied almost entirely on the Qur'an and rational thought, practically rejecting hadith.[50][51] His followers were called the Nazzamiyyah.[52] Al-Nazzam held the Qur'an's miraculous nature came from its divine inspiration, rejected ijma, and denied hadith had independent legal authority. He argued hadith could only be trusted when supported by reason or direct evidence, no matter how many people transmitted them.[53][54]

Another Mu'tazilite, Dirar ibn Amr, rejected ahad (hadith which is not mutawatir) and was known to reject hadith outright in deriving law, though he accepted consensus. Dirar observed that different sects related contradictory hadith in support of their positions. He therefore upheld consensus instead of hadith. Dirar's rejection of hadith in favour of consensus continued outside Mu'tazilism with al-Shafi'i's opponent Ibrahim ibn Ulayya and the Hanafi Bishr al-Marisi.[55][56][57]

Al-Jahiz was affiliated with the Mu'tazilite school of thought to which he belonged and founded an offshoot known as the Jahiziyya school.[58] Al-Jahiz was averse to hadith, rejecting any hadith, regardless of how well attested it appeared, if it conflicted with empirical observation.[59][60]

Western views

European critics of hadith assert non-orthodox, independent Muslim thinkers of the 8th and 9th centuries CE not only questioned the authority of hadith altogether but openly mocked the system as a whole.[61]

Modern groups

Syed Ahmad Khan, who helped advance Hadith denial in the Indian subcontinent[62]

Many modernist Muslims believe some problems in the Islamic world stem from traditional hadith teachings, and they therefore seek to question or reject them.[63]

In Islamic archaeology, some modern Muslim commentators use archaeology as a method of historical checking and as extra material for tafsir (interpretation of scripture). This is common in modernist or historically focused approaches to Qur'anic studies. This method goes beyond traditional sources of knowledge, especially hadith, and some Muslims believe it is acceptable to critique hadiths using factual archaeological evidence.[64][65]

Some Alevis critisize the authenticity of hadith.[66] Alevis view the Sunnah and hadith, as defined by Sunni orthodoxy, as Arab elitist innovations. They hold that Sunnis corrupted the authentic words of Muhammad, so they rely instead on texts such as the "Nahjul Balagha" (a collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to Ali), the "Buyruks" (attributed to Safi-ad-Din Ardabili or Ja'far al-Sadiq), and stories of Alevi leaders.[67][68][69]

Neo-Mu'tazilites, who revive some of the rationalist methods of the classical Mu'tazila, take a critical approach to hadith and often question their authority.[70] One example is Syed Ahmad Khan, who was one of the most famous Hadith rejectors from the Indian subcontinent.[71] He promoted a rationalist, neo-Mu'tazilite reading of Islamic texts. He argued many hadith were unreliable or only relevant to prophet Muhammad's own time, rejected the authority of ijma, expanded the role of ijtihad, and, as a Muslim Hebraist, interpreted Biblical texts sympathetically.[72][73] He rejected the traditional views on authenticity of the canonical collections of hadith.[74] His ideas strongly influenced hadith skepticism in the Indian subcontinent.[75]

Similarly, the Egyptian neo-Mu'tazilite Ahmad Amin critisized the way in which hadith were collected and selected, and was known for his rationalist approach to the Qur'an and Sunnah.[76] Another modern example is Dr. Taj Hargey, a British imam who founded the Open Mosque in Cape Town, South Africa. He promotes a "non-sectarian" approach to Islam that includes rejecting hadith.[77] Hargey identifies as a "freethinker" and advocates a "new Mu'tazilism". For him, hadith is "toxic" and undermines the purity and originality of the Qur'an.[78]

Ghulam Ahmad Pervez, founder of Tolu-e-Islam, is often accused by traditional Sunnis of being a Hadith rejector.[79][80] While Tolu-e-Islam accepts individual hadith that it believes aligns with the Qur'an and portrays prophet Muhammad and his companions in a positive light, it questions the overall reliability of the classical hadith collections, viewing them as later interpretations rather than Muhammad's exact words.[81][82]

Pervez distinguished clearly between Sunnah and hadith and rejected hadith as a binding legal source. He believed an Islamic state should be built on the Qur'an, operate through a Sunnah-based social order, and use hadith only as supporting material rather than law.[83][84][85][86] Those who follow Pervez are sometimes called Parwezis. They have been noted for their anti-hadith views and for regarding Hanafis, Malikis, Shafi'is, and Hanbalis as mushriks (pagans).[87] Based on its own doctrine and the writings of its guiding figures, Tolu-e-Islam does not affiliate with any political party or religious sect, presenting itself as non-denominational.[88]

The Yan Tatsine was a militant sect founded by Muhammad Marwa, also known as Maitatsine ("the one who curses"). The sect allegedly regarded Maitatsine as a prophet, is reported to have performed two rakats in Salat, rejected hadith, avoided praying toward Mecca, and employed charms and ritual "magic" as part of their armed uprisings against the Nigerian army and those outside their sect.[89]

The "Mofliukhunovtsy" is a movement in Tatarstan, founded by N. Mofliukhunov. It is recognized as a trend in regional Islamist ideology that rejects hadith and refuses to acknowledge the legitimacy of many rites and traditions practised by conservative Hanafis.[90]

Qur'anists are one of the clearest examples of groups that reject hadith. They reject hadith because they believe the Qur'an is the only source of guidance in Islam and the only book needed by Muslims.[91][92][93] Qur'anists such as Ahmad Subhy Mansour hold that Muhammad was never the source of religion or sharia legislation, and that his role was confined to conveying the Qur'an. They maintain that Muhammad was not permitted to answer religious questions on his own accord, but was required to wait for revelation in the Qur'an. They believe hadith are fabrications ascribed to Muhammad decades and centuries after his death. These include hadith compiled by al-Bukhari. They deem ascribing such hadith to Muhammad as utter disbelief (kufr) in terms of faith.[94][95]

Prior to the emergence of modern Qur'anism, Abdullah Chakralawi founded the Ahl al-Qur'an movement which was influential mostly in the Punjab region. The movement took hadith as relevant only to the human situation of Muhammad, took only the injunctions of the Qur'an as compulsory, and denied the excessive emphasis that Ahl-i Hadith put on hadith.[96][97] It performs Salat differently from Ahl-i Hadith and has abolished the adhan and Eid prayers.[98] Chakralawi is considered by Qur'anists to be an influence on the later development of Qur'anism in Pakistan.[99]

Submitters follow the teachings of Rashad Khalifa. Their headquarters is Masjid Tucson in Arizona, United States of America. They reject hadith and believe in the "Qur'an alone", along with Khalifa's "Code 19," and regard him as a "Messenger of the Covenant." Submitters believe hadith are blasphemous and misleading fabrications. Submitters do not regard themselves as Qur'anists, arguing that their beliefs, especially about Khalifa's status and religious rituals, are fundamentally different.[100][101][102]

In Malaysia, the Anti-Hadith Group (AHG), also known as the Anti-Hadith Movement (AHM), was influenced by Kassim Ahmad, who rejected hadith as a basis for Muslim theology and law. According to him, hadith are sectarian, anti-science, anti-reason, and anti-women. The AHM is made up of Muslim modernists, Ahl al-Qur'an, modernist Salafists, and traditionalist Salafists.[103][104][105][106]

The Zumratul Jamiu Mumin (ZJM) is a society in Nigeria that regards only the Qur'an and the Bible as sacred books of Allah for determining religious matters. To them, the use of hadith is an aberration.[107]

A similar group in Nigeria is the Isawa, who reject hadith and all established Muslim traditions and instead preach that the Qur'an alone and the Christian scriptures should be the foundations of a Muslim's faith. They are also called "Yan Sap" because they pray Salat by going straight into prostration, and they interpret the Qur'an directly, rejecting classical tafsir and other forms of exegesis.[108][109][110]

Members of the Islamist sect in Mozambique that later came to be known as Al-Shabaab were described as refusing to "know the sayings of the Prophet", adopting scripturalist, Qur'an-only views. Among their distinctive practices was performing Salat three times a day instead of five.[111]

Other individuals

Libyan revolutionary Muammar Gaddafi, who objected to the use of hadith in determining Islamic rulings[112]

According to Yasir Qadhi, Persian polymath al-Biruni was "not pro-Hadith" and was "sceptical of Hadith".[113][114]

In the 1970s CE, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi began rejecting the use of hadith for Islamic law. This brought strong criticism from groups like Hizb ut-Tahrir (HT), who even demanded he hand power over to them. Gaddafi responded by executing HT members.[115] According to the book, Islamists of the Maghreb, hadith was rejected by Gaddafi as "corrupt, false, and unnecessary texts". Traditional scholars were stripped of their privileged posts and income.[116] Gaddafi promoted his own form of ijtihad, and he also claimed that all Muslims follow the Sunnah and are "Shias by default."[117]

Former followers of Turkish cult leader Adnan Oktar say he "repudiated" all hadith and treated the Qur'an as his "only point of reference", pointing to the major changes he made to hadith-based practices, such as reducing the daily prayers from five to three and ending the requirement for women to wear veils.[118]

Mohammad Tawhidi, a Shia reformer, has explicitly stated his rejection of the books of hadith and has stated: "The political, historical, social, ethical, and jurisprudential books that cover aspects of the life of Mohammad were written by scholars from many sects. They vary and contradict each other due to the different perceptions of Mohammad within all 70+ Islamic schools of thought. I encourage my co-religionists to review and evaluate their historical texts".[119][120]

Recent growth

In the 21st century CE, Hadith rejectors have grown, especially in the Arab world, the Middle East, North Africa, and the West, partly because online access has made hadith widely available in many languages.[121][122]

In Malaysia, anti-Hadith groups have spread in many sectors, such as the educational sector. They have successfully trained cadres among Muslim scholars. They are supported by specific intellectual and influential parties.[123]

Sufi scholar Muhammad Hisham Kabbani said he was amazed some Muslim leaders and their followers rejected hadith. He also said hadith rejection can be found in "most of the mosques in the West and around the world".[124]

Currently, it is reported by some authors that the Qur'anist movement, which rejects hadith, encompasses tens of thousands to potentially a million followers globally.[125][126]

See also

References

  1. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9DjYAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%B1%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%90%D8%B6%D9%88+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB&dq=%D8%B1%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%90%D8%B6%D9%88+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi7sovmirCTAxV2QUEAHbUICK8Q6AF6BAgKEAM#%D8%B1%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%90%D8%B6%D9%88%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB
  2. ↑ https://www.academia.edu/91165175/A_Critical_Study_of_Objections_of_Orientalists_and_Hadith_Deniers_on_Sense_Reporting_of_Hadith_Text
  3. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4GEMAQAAMAAJ&q=Hadith+contain+sayings+attributed+to+Muhammad.&dq=Hadith+contain+sayings+attributed+to+Muhammad.&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiUj6ay7JuTAxXGif0HHefbDtkQ6AF6BAgMEAM#Hadith%20contain%20sayings%20attributed%20to%20Muhammad.
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  13. ↑ https://journalppw.com/index.php/jpsp/article/download/17495/11029/22085
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  15. ↑ Kate H. Winter (1989). The Woman in the Mountain: Reconstructions of Self and Land by Adirondack Women Writers. SUNY Press. p. 45. ISBN 9781438424255.
  16. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J5RGlpx0j8sC&pg=PA123&dq=Umar%27s+ban+on+hadith&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj4oZqQwvuTAxXLQEEAHf1QG9gQ6AF6BAgNEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
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  20. ↑ Musa, Aisha Y. (2008). Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority of Prophetic Traditions in Islam. Palgrave. ISBN 978-0-230-60535-0.
  21. ↑ Aisha Y. Musa, Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on the Authority of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008, pp. 25–29.
  22. ↑ Kate H. Winter (1989). The Woman in the Mountain: Reconstructions of Self and Land by Adirondack Women Writers. SUNY Press. p. 45. ISBN 9781438424255.
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  26. ↑ https://why-sunnis-convert-to-shia.com/prohibition-of-recording-the-hadith/
  27. ↑ https://historyofislam.org/umayyad-caliphate/religious-beliefs/#Hadith_Literature
  28. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vFgYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA30&dq=Ahl+al-Hadith+school+of+thought+considered+hadith&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi38s6g3vWVAxWlVkEAHSxYI2IQ6AF6BAgOEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
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  30. ↑ https://www.academia.edu/44934827/Kharijism_in_the_Umayyad_Period
  31. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pCiQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA183&dq=Azariqa+rejected+two+of+the+five+prayers+and+kept+only+three.&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiByvWzlumSAxUtVEEAHfLVBsgQ6AF6BAgIEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
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  33. ↑ https://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D04120/2018_7-8/2018_7-8_CAKINK.pdf
  34. 1 2 "Hadith Criticism in Early Islam", p. 19. Available at: https://files.cdn-files-a.com/uploads/2977531/normal_5e36a63ad8ab3.pdf
  35. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=miaIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA315&dq=A+century+after+Ab%C5%AB+Hamza+,+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+ibn+Idr%C4%ABs+al+-+Sh%C4%81fi%CA%BBi+(+d+.+204/820+)&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwis2baaxZmTAxU-4AIHHYZNBaAQ6AF6BAgMEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  36. ↑ "Hadith Criticism in Early Islam", p. 21. Available at: https://files.cdn-files-a.com/uploads/2977531/normal_5e36a63ad8ab3.pdf
  37. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=miaIEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA315&dq=A+century+after+Ab%C5%AB+Hamza+,+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+ibn+Idr%C4%ABs+al+-+Sh%C4%81fi%CA%BBi+(+d+.+204/820+)&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwis2baaxZmTAxU-4AIHHYZNBaAQ6AF6BAgMEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  38. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=StNnnz5ZbcEC&pg=PA4&dq=Ahl+al-Ray+rejected+hadith&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi1le71q4KSAxU9VUEAHRYUDaYQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  39. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BavpEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT97&dq=Early+Hadith+rejectors&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj8nd2LyciSAxWRTEEAHRHeN7YQ6AF6BAgJEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  40. ↑ https://jsr.usb.ac.ir/article_836_66f3c74ac6651881aeb32f7fbef47109.pdf Archived 2017-08-10 at the Wayback Machine [bare URL PDF]
  41. ↑ Brown, Rethinking tradition in modern Islamic thought, 1996[broken anchor]: p.15
  42. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8Bww1fwsg8C&pg=PA79&dq=Ahl+al-Kalam+rejected+hadith+in+favour+of+the+living+tradition.&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjkt4DF8LaVAxVyVUEAHaduIYAQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  43. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vdbGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63&dq=Al-Ma%27mun+was+inclined+towards+rational+inquiry+in+religious+matters,+supported+the+proponents+of+Kalam+and+persecuted+the+adherents+of+Hadith.&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiU1KbvnPmJAxWpQEEAHYwXEHQQ6AF6BAgDEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  44. ↑ https://muse.jhu.edu/article/963980
  45. ↑ https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/666732
  46. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vTMDbZ7qLNgC&pg=PA51&dq=Mutazila+questioned+the+reliability+of+the+Hadith&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiNvu6HqMCTAxVHZkEAHW9KDOYQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  47. ↑ Deen, Sayyed M. (2007). Science Under Islam: Rise, Decline and Revival. Lulu.com. ISBN 9781847999429.
  48. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bjfnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62&dq=Hadithist+Mu%27tazila&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiyhvH-s_qVAxXcU0EAHULYOP0Q6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  49. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P3muEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT76&dq=Hadith+Rejecters+%7C+Concise+%7C+Mu%27tazilites&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjpyJuX5cSTAxWEZ0EAHRfqMdoQ6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  50. ↑ "Duha Al-Islam".
  51. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4n8HSe9SfXMC&pg=PA257&dq=Rejected+the+traditions+%5Bhadiths%5D,+and+openly+declared+Abu+Hurayra&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiEsvHFpsSTAxXRWEEAHQFvGl0Q6AF6BAgHEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  52. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2HpIAAAAMAAJ&q=Ibrahim+al-Nazzam+-+Nazzamiyah&dq=Ibrahim+al-Nazzam+-+Nazzamiyah&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjc-p2nireSAxXR-gIHHZR9CmAQ6AF6BAgJEAM#Ibrahim%20al-Nazzam%20-%20Nazzamiyah
  53. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2HpIAAAAMAAJ&q=Ibrahim+al-Nazzam+-+Nazzamiyah&dq=Ibrahim+al-Nazzam+-+Nazzamiyah&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjc-p2nireSAxXR-gIHHZR9CmAQ6AF6BAgJEAM#Ibrahim%20al-Nazzam%20-%20Nazzamiyah
  54. ↑ "Na???m, Al- | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com.
  55. ↑ Duderija, Adis (October 14, 2015). The Sunna and its Status in Islamic Law: The Search for a Sound Hadith. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-36992-5 – via Google Books.
  56. ↑ https://www.scribd.com/document/326642601/Ignacio-Sanchez-Al-jahiz-and-Hadith-Criticism
  57. ↑ https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004427952/BP000006.xml?srsltid=AfmBOorfYdsjvKTht8WJ6LGAD-uli5Yzv5-EPP8269hr9lO8DsxFKE_z#:~:text=Anas)%20against%20another%20version%20endorsed,Anas%2C%20who%20went%20against%20it.&text=It%20does%20appear%20in%20the,hardly%20excludes%20such%20hadith%20consistently.
  58. ↑ https://newlinesmag.com/essays/how-a-satirist-captured-the-maladies-of-the-islamic-golden-age/
  59. ↑ https://www.scribd.com/document/326642601/Ignacio-Sanchez-Al-jahiz-and-Hadith-Criticism
  60. ↑ https://www.acton.org/religion-liberty/volume-36-number-1/lost-empiricism-al-jahiz
  61. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=etnEKz_rOfgC&pg=PT104&dq=Not+only+questioned+the+authority+of+the+Hadith+altogether+but+derided+the+very+system&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwipu-uzrMSTAxXcZkEAHY0xAYAQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  62. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342700690_Ebu'l_A'la_Mevdudi'nin_Hint_Altkitasi'ndaki_Hadis_Inkarcilarini_Elestirisi
  63. ↑ "10 Forgotten Sects of Major Religions". 8 April 2016.
  64. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361409940_The_Place_of_Archaeological_Studies_and_Historical_Geography_in_Contemporary_Interpretations
  65. ↑ https://seekersguidance.org/answers/hadith/hadiths-at-odds-with-science/
  66. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xr_JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA159&dq=Alevi+girl+in+a+discussion+about+ah%C4%81d%C4%ABth&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiLxbHGkreTAxVe3QIHHSYWF3MQ6AF6BAgHEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  67. ↑ https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/olj/meria/meria99_zed02.html#txt55
  68. ↑ https://www.transcend.org/tms/2024/03/the-question-of-alevi-minority-in-turkey-and-its-religious-identity/
  69. ↑ Ayfer, Karakaya-Stump Ayfer (10 January 2020). Kizilbash-Alevis in Ottoman Anatolia: Sufism, Politics and Community. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-1-4744-3271-9.
  70. ↑ https://shs.cairn.info/journal-etudes-2023-5-page-83?lang=en
  71. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUraEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA44&dq=Hadith+rejectors+%7C+Syed+Ahmad+Khan+%7C+Indian+subcontinent&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjjvNu52vOVAxUuQEEAHXI3If8Q6AF6BAgMEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  72. ↑ https://mrmo.org/islamic-reformers/sayyid-ahmad-khan/
  73. ↑ https://countercurrents.org/2026/01/how-the-quran-affirms-the-gospels-and-ends-the-lost-book-delusion/
  74. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uTUnWkJ4kmMC&pg=PA89&dq=He+also+rejected+the+traditional+views+on+authenticity+of+the+great+canonical+collections+of+hadith%C2%A0&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj377DimeCSAxWgXEEAHYfdGvgQ6AF6BAgMEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  75. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342700690_Ebu'l_A'la_Mevdudi'nin_Hint_Altkitasi'ndaki_Hadis_Inkarcilarini_Elestirisi
  76. ↑ https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/13/3/234
  77. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8eSKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT204&dq=Dr.+Hargey+rejects+the+Hadith&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiNwr6SwJSTAxXiQEEAHRxjPS4Q6AF6BAgPEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  78. ↑ https://freethinker.co.uk/2023/11/britains-liberal-imam-interview-with-taj-hargey/
  79. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pvPGBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Fallacies+Of+The+Anti+Hadith+Argument+-+Page+15&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
  80. ↑ https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2016/04/02/on-chappals-and-extremism
  81. ↑ https://www.parwez.tv/main/beliefs-of-allama-ghulam-ahmad-parwez-one-of-the-founders-of-pakistan.html
  82. ↑ https://www.parwez.tv/abid/mufhoom_1/by_G_A_parwez/Historical%20Perspectives%20and%20Implications%20of%20Hadith%20.htm
  83. ↑ https://www.scribd.com/document/173822794/Some-Issues-Concerning-Women-and-Ghulam-Ahmad-Parvez-IJIT-v-1-N-1-2012
  84. ↑ https://www.parwez.tv/main/beliefs-of-allama-ghulam-ahmad-parwez-one-of-the-founders-of-pakistan.html
  85. ↑ https://www.parwez.tv/abid/mufhoom_1/by_G_A_parwez/The%20Paradigm%20of%20Permanence%20and%20Change%20in%20Islam.htm
  86. ↑ https://www.parwez.tv/abid/mufhoom_1/by_G_A_parwez/Historical%20Perspectives%20and%20Implications%20of%20Hadith%20.htm
  87. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2024-04-16. Retrieved 2026-04-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  88. ↑ https://www.parwez.tv/main/beliefs-of-allama-ghulam-ahmad-parwez-one-of-the-founders-of-pakistan.html
  89. ↑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250225665_Islamic_Protest_under_Semi-Industrial_Capitalism_'Yan_Tatsine_Explained
  90. ↑ https://www.hudson.org/national-security-defense/the-struggle-for-the-soul-of-tatar-islam
  91. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h8hOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT210&dq=Some+Hadith+rejectors+self-identify+as+People+of+the+Qur%27an&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwin_sP46saSAxUTWUEAHVaWFBQQ6AF6BAgOEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  92. ↑ https://www.ahl-alquran.com/arabic/show_article.php?main_id=13688
  93. ↑ https://www.ahl-alquran.com/arabic/show_article.php?main_id=16211
  94. ↑ https://www.ahl-alquran.com/arabic/show_article.php?main_id=15303
  95. ↑ https://www.ahl-alquran.com/arabic/show_article.php?main_id=20908
  96. ↑ https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/amailad/article/684171
  97. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BdH_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA289&dq=Led+by+Maulana+Abdu%27llah+Chakralawi+in+Lahore,+its+influence+was+mostly+limited+to+the+Punjab.&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiD-sCNgJWTAxVZU0EAHVDuL18Q6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  98. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7aREAAAQBAJ&pg=PP246&dq=Eid%C2%A0Prayers.+Because+of+such+ideas,+they+had+a+lot+of+conflict+with+Ahl+al-Hadith.&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiRtbKL4K-TAxUB9AIHHSUrCZwQ6AF6BAgHEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  99. ↑ https://ahl-alquran.com/arabic/show_article.php?main_id=13792
  100. ↑ https://www.academia.edu/72964563/NINETEEN_Gods_Signature_in_Nature_and_Scripture_by_Edip_Yuksel
  101. ↑ https://www.masjidtucson.org/publications/books/qhi/QURAN_Hadith_Islam_pg58.pdf
  102. ↑ https://thesubmitters.org/
  103. ↑ https://www.richtmann.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/view/6473
  104. ↑ https://www.richtmann.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/download/8856/pdf_63/34428
  105. ↑ Rippin, Andrew (2 September 2003). Muslims – Vol 2: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices Volume 2: The Contemporary Period. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-94895-6.
  106. ↑ https://al-irsyad.uis.edu.my/index.php/alirsyad/article/view/20/18
  107. ↑ https://samphina.com.ng/dawah-activities-zumratul-jamiu-mumin-society-nigeria/
  108. ↑ https://b.mou.ir/tglanceu/35WH756007/wselecte/96WH172/ijma__dan__qiyas.pdf[permanent dead link]
  109. ↑ https://africanstudies.northwestern.edu/docs/publications-research/working-papers/HASSAN%202015%20PAS-ISITA%20WP%20NO%201.pdf
  110. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZtWDEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Who+were+the+Isawa,+and+what+were+their+beliefs?&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiH4Ye2ivuSAxVKV0EAHajnL7wQ6AF6BAgOEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  111. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yJ3fEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&dq=Eric+Morier-Genoud+-+Al-Shabaab+rejects+Hadith&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiKm8GH5_uSAxWfV0EAHZmKPZ4Q6AF6BAgIEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  112. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ob9aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT41&dq=Gaddafi+Hadith+Islam&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi6w-zDstySAxVzRUEAHX45I4YQ6AF6BAgOEAM#v=onepage&q=Gaddafi%20Hadith%20Islam&f=false
  113. ↑ https://muslimcentral.com/yasir-qadhi-library-chat-12-al-biruni-d-1048-ce-and-the-making-of-muslim-civilization/
  114. ↑ https://www.duas.org/falsefast.htm
  115. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ob9aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT41&dq=Gaddafi+Hadith+Islam&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi6w-zDstySAxVzRUEAHX45I4YQ6AF6BAgOEAM#v=onepage&q=Gaddafi%20Hadith%20Islam&f=false
  116. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ypU4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT154&dq=Islamists+of+the+Maghreb+%7C+Gaddafi+rejected+hadith&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjsruDo8veTAxVLUUEAHREgMgkQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  117. ↑ https://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2007%2F10%2F11%2F40254
  118. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2026-01-29. Retrieved 2026-03-02.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  119. ↑ https://imamtawhidi.com/imam-tawhidi-these-are-my-religious-beliefs/
  120. ↑ https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-06-23/imam-tawhidi-the-problem-with-the-medias-favourite-muslim/8643726
  121. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h8hOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT212&dq=Why+Are+the+Hadith-Rejectors+Growing+in+Number?&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi-wvnyh4OSAxWgYEEAHbHCBXoQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  122. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h8hOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT222&dq=This+growing+criticism+of+the+hadiths+is+occurring+not+only+in+the+West.+Even+in+the+Arab+World,+the+heartland+of+Islam,+the+number+of+hadith-rejecters+is+increasing.&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiCl_DK0pyTAxWqSPEDHWDGDIUQ6AF6BAgLEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  123. ↑ https://www.richtmann.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/view/6473
  124. ↑ https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UmVBJiAufusC&pg=PA179&dq=Rejection+of+hadith&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjbm8D6zeiTAxWCY0EAHQ9UIFIQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q&f=false
  125. ↑ https://www.coursehero.com/file/218408992/Branch-of-Islam-Paperpdf/
  126. ↑ Padalkar, Ravindra (12 September 2024). Muslims – Around the World. Notion Press. ISBN 979-8-89519-539-0. Retrieved 20 October 2025.
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