Dagbanli language
| Dagbani | |
|---|---|
| Dagbanli | |
| Native to | Ghana, Togo |
| Region | Kingdom of Dagbon |
| Ethnicity | 5.6 million Dagbamba (2021 census)[1] |
Native speakers | 1.2 million (2013)[1] |
| Dialects |
|
| Latin, Ajami (Arabic) | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | dag |
| Glottolog | dagb1246 |
| Person | Dagbambia[2] |
|---|---|
| Language | Dagbanli |
| Country | Dagbɔŋ |
Dagbanli, also known as Dagbani (sometimes spelled Dagbanle or Dagbane), is a Gur language spoken in Ghana and northern Togo. It has an estimated 1.17 million native speakers.[3] Dagbanli is the most widely spoken language in the northern half of Ghana, including among several acephalous ethnic groups historically under the authority of the King of Dagbaŋ, the Yaa-Naa. Dagbaŋ, located in the Northern Region of Ghana, is regarded as the oldest traditional kingdom in the country, and the Yaa-Naa serves as its paramount chief, presiding over the various communities within the Dagbaŋ area.
Dagbanli is mutually intelligible with Mampruli and closely related to Nabit, Talni, Kamara, Kantosi, and Hanga, also spoken in Northern, North East, Upper East, and Savannah Regions. It is also related to the other members of the same subgroup spoken in other regions, including Dagaare and Wali, spoken in Upper West Region of Ghana, along with Frafra and Kusaal, spoken in the Upper East Region of the country.[4][5]
In Togo, Dagbanli is spoken in the Savanes Region on the border with Ghana.
Etymology and Naming
[edit]The language is known as Dagbanli, following the internal naming system in which Dagbamba refers to the people, Dagbanli to the language, and Dagbaŋ to the land. Linguists note that this ‑li marker for languages is consistent across Mabia languages.
The form Dagbani became widespread during the colonial and missionary period, when British administrators and early linguists standardized language names according to English spelling conventions and often derived them from anglicized ethnonyms such as “Dagomba.” These spellings were blindly adopted in early dictionaries, primers, and later by the Ghanaian education system and the Bureau of Ghana Languages.
Contemporary scholars, including Dr. Fatimata Wunpini Mohammed, argue that Dagbanli is the culturally and linguistically appropriate name, and that the continued use of Dagbani reflects colonial-era naming practices. She describes the use of Dagbanli in academic and community contexts as part of ongoing efforts toward linguistic decolonization.
Dialects
[edit]Dagbanli has a major dialect split between Eastern Dagbanli (Nayahali), centred on the traditional capital town of Yendi (Naya), and Western Dagbanli (Tomosili), centred on the administrative capital of the Northern Region, Tamale. The dialects are, however, mutually intelligible, and mainly consist of different root vowels in some lexemes, and different forms or pronunciations of some nouns, particularly those referring to local flora.
Phonology
[edit]Vowels
[edit]Dagbanli has eleven phonemic vowels – six short vowels and five long vowels:
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | ɨ | u |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | iː | uː | |
| Mid | eː | oː | |
| Low | aː |
Olawsky (1999) puts the schwa (ə) in place of /ɨ/, unlike other researchers on the language[6] who use the higher articulated /ɨ/. Allophonic variation based on tongue-root advancement is well attested for 4 of these vowels: [i] ~ [ɪ]/[ə], [e] ~ [ɛ], [u] ~ [ʊ] and [o] ~ [ɔ].
Consonants
[edit]| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Labial-velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | ŋ͡m | ||
| Stop/ Affricate |
Voiceless | p | t | (t͡ʃ) | k | k͡p | (ʔ) |
| Voiced | b | d | (d͡ʒ) | ɡ | ɡ͡b | ||
| Fricative | Voiceless | f | s | (ʃ) | x | (h) | |
| Voiced | v | z | (ʒ) | ||||
| Lateral | l | ||||||
| Sonorant | (ɾ) | j | w |
- [x] mainly occurs phonemically among other Western dialects.
- /s/ debuccalizes as a glottal [h] when in intervocalic position. /ɡ/ debuccalizes as a glottal stop [ʔ] post-vocalic position.
- Sounds /k, ɡ, s, z/ are realized as [t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ, ʃ, ʒ] when preceding front vowels.
- /d/ can be heard as [ɾ] when in post-vocalic positions.[6]
Tone
[edit]Dagbanli is a tonal language in which pitch is used to distinguish words, as in gballi [ɡbálːɪ́] (high-high) 'grave' vs. gballi [ɡbálːɪ̀] (high-low) 'zana mat'.[7] The tone system of Dagbani is characterised by two-level tones and downstep (a lowering effect occurring between sequences of the same phonemic tone).
Orthography
[edit]
Dagbanli was first written in Ajami script. In contemporary times it is mostly written in a Latin alphabet with the addition of the apostrophe, the letters ɛ, ɣ, ŋ, ɔ, and ʒ, and the digraphs ch, gb, kp, ŋm, sh and ny. The literacy rate used to be only 2–3%.[8][9] This percentage is expected to rise as Dagbanli is now a compulsory subject in primary and junior secondary school all over Dagbaŋ. The orthography currently used[10] (Orthography Committee /d(1998)) represents a number of allophonic distinctions. Tone is not marked.
| a | b | ch | d | e | ɛ | f | g | gb | ɣ | h | i | j | k | kp | l | m | n | ny | ŋ | ŋm | o | ɔ | p | r | s | sh | t | u | w | y | z | ʒ | ’ |
Grammar
[edit]Dagbanli is agglutinative, but with some fusion of affixes. The constituent order in Dagbanli sentences is usually agent–verb–object.
Lexicon
[edit]There is insight into a historical stage of the language in the papers of Rudolf Fisch, reflecting data collected during his missionary work in the German Togoland colony in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, especially the lexical list,[11] though there is also some grammatical information[12] and sample texts.[13] A more modern glossary was published in 1934 by a southern Ghanaian officer of the colonial government, E. Foster Tamakloe, in 1934,[14] with a revised edition by British officer Harold Blair.[15] Various editors added to the wordlist and a more complete publication was produced in 2003 by an indigenopus scholar, Ibrahim Mahama.[16] Meanwhile, the data was electronically compiled by John Miller Chernoff and Roger Blench (whose version is published online),[17] and converted into a database by Tony Naden, on the basis of which a full-featured dictionary is ongoing and can be viewed online.[18]
Noun class system
[edit]| Noun class[19] | Example (SG) | Example (PL) | SG suffix | PL suffix | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | tIb-li | tIb-a | -li | -a | ear |
| 2 | paG-a | paG-ba | -a | -ba | woman |
| 3 | gab-ga | gab-si | -ga | -si | rope |
| 4 | wab-gu | wab-ri | -gu | -ri | elephant |
| 5 | kur-gu | kur-a | -gu | -a | old |
| 6 | ko-m/kom- | ko-ma/kom-a | -m/ | -ma/-a | water |
Pronouns
[edit]Each set of personal pronouns in Dagbanli is distinguished regarding person, number and animacy. Besides the distinction between singular and plural, there is an additional distinction between [+/- animate] in the 3rd person. Moreover, Dagbanli distinguishes between emphatic and non-emphatic pronouns and there are no gender distinctions. While there is no morphological differentiation between grammatical cases, pronouns can occur in different forms according to whether they appear pre- or postverbally.[20]
Non-emphatic pronouns
[edit]Preverbal
[edit]Preverbal pronouns serve as subjects of a verb and are all monosyllabic.[20]
| Person | SG | PL |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | n | ti |
| 2 | a | yi |
| 3 [+animate] | o | bɛ |
| 3 [-animate] | di | di, ŋa |
Postverbal
[edit]Postverbal pronouns usually denote objects.[20]
| Person | SG | PL |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | ma | ti |
| 2 | a | ya |
| 3 [+animate] | o | ba |
| 3 [-animate] | li | li, ŋa |
Given the fact that preverbal and postverbal pronouns do not denote two complementary sets, one could refer to them as unmarked or specifically marked for postverbal occurrence.[20]
| Person | SG | PL | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unmarked | Marked | Unmarked | Marked | |||
| 1 | n | ma | ti | |||
| 2 | a | yi | ya | |||
| 3 [+animate] | o | bɛ | ba | |||
| 3 [-animate] | di | li | di | (ŋa) | li |
Emphatic pronouns
[edit]Emphatic pronouns in Dagbanli serve as regular pronouns in that they can stand in isolation, preverbally or postverbally.[20]
| Person | SG | PL |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | mani | tinima |
| 2 | nyini | yinima |
| 3 [+animate] | ŋuni, ŋuna | bɛna, bana |
| 3 [-animate] | dini, dina | ŋana |
Reciprocal pronouns
[edit]Reciprocals are formed by the addition of the word taba after the verb.[20]
Reflexive pronouns
[edit]Reflexive pronouns are formed by the suffix -maŋa, which is attached to the non-emphatic preverbal pronoun.[20]
The affix maŋa can also occur as an emphatic pronoun after nouns.[20]
Possessive pronouns
[edit]The possessive pronouns in Dagbanli exactly correspond to the preverbal non-emphatic pronouns, which always precede the possessed constituent.
Relative pronouns
[edit]In Dagbanli the relative pronouns are ŋʊn ("who") and ni ("which").[21]
The relative pronouns in Dagbanli are not obligatory present and can also be absent depending on the context, as the following example illustrates.[21]
Azima
Azima
kaagi
visit.PFV
ji-li
house
ʃɛli
pro
ni
REL
da
buy.PFV
la.
DET
„Azima visited the house which I bought.“[21]
Relative pronouns in Dagbanli can also be complex in their nature, such that they consist of two elements, an indefinite pronoun and an emphatic pronoun.[20]
Su-a
Knife
ʃɛli
pro
din
REL
pa
be
teebʊlʊ
table.SG
zʊʔʊ
head
maa
DET
kabiya.
break.PFV
„The knife which was on the table is broken.“[21]
Interrogative pronouns
[edit]Source:[22]
Interrogative pronouns in Dagbanli make a distinction between human and non-human.
| Dagbanli | English |
|---|---|
| bòn / bà | what |
| ŋùní | who |
| bòzùɤù | why |
| yà | where |
| díní | which |
| álá | how much |
| bòndàlì | when |
| sáhá díní | when |
| wùlà | how |
Additionally, interrogative pronouns inflect for number, but not all of them. Those inflecting for number belong to the semantic categories [ +THING], [ +SELECTION], [ +PERSON].[23]
| Semantic Category | SG | PL | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|
| [+PERSON] | ŋùní | bànímà | who/whom |
| [+SELECTION] | dìní | dìnnímà | which |
| [+THING] | bò | bònímà | what |
Demonstrative pronouns
[edit]Demonstrative pronouns in Dagbanli make a morphological difference between the singular and plural form. The demonstrative pronoun ŋɔ moves to the specifier of the functional NumP and if Num is plural, then the plural morphem -nímá attaches to the demonstrative pronoun. If Num is singular, there is a zero morphem, such that the demonstrative pronoun does not differ in its morphological form.[24]
| Demonstrative Pronoun | SG | PL | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|
| Proximal | ŋɔ | ŋɔnímá | this/these |
| Distal | ŋɔ há | ŋɔnímá há | that/those |
Indefinite pronouns
[edit]Dagbanli distinguishes not only between singular and plural for indefinite pronouns, but also between [+/-animate]. Therefore, there are two pairs of indefinite pronouns. Indefinites are basically used in the same way as adjectives, as their morphological form is similar to that of nouns and adjectives.[20] In order to express an indefinite like "something" the inanimate singular form is combined with the noun bini ("thing").
| SG | PL | Gloss | |
|---|---|---|---|
| [+animate] | <so> | <shɛba> | somebody |
| [-animate] | <shɛli> | <shɛŋa> | something |
Syntax
[edit]Word order
[edit]Dagbani has a rigid SVO word order. In the canonical sentence structure, the verb precedes the direct and indirect object as well as adverbials. The clause structure exhibits varying functional elements projecting various functional phrasal categories including tense, aspect, negation, mood and the conjoint/disjoint paradigm.
Páɣà
woman
máá
DET
tí
give.PFV
bíhí
children
nyùlí
yam
zùŋò.
today
„The woman has given the children yam today.[23]
Verb phrase
[edit]The VP in Dagbanli consists of a preverbal particle encoding tense, aspect and mood, the main verb, and a postverbal particle which marks focus.[25]
Preverbal particles
[edit]Major particles
[edit]| Tense, aspect, modal particles[26] | Dagbanli |
|---|---|
| today (also once upon a time) | də |
| one day away | sa |
| two or more days away | daa |
| habitual | yi |
| still, not yet | na |
| actually | siri |
| once again, as usual | yaa |
| suddenly, just | dii |
| non-future negative | bə |
| future affix | nə |
| future negative | ku |
| imperative subjunctive negative | de |
| again | lah |
Main verb
[edit]Each verb in Dagbanli has two forms, a perfective and an imperfective form with very few exceptions. In general, the perfective form is the unmarked form, whereas the imperfective form corresponds to the progressive form, or in other words it refers to an action, which is still in progress.[20] The perfective is nearly syncretic with the infinitive, which in turn has an /n-/-prefix. The imperfective is formed by the suffix /-di/.[20]
The inflectional system in Dagbanli is relatively poor as compared to other languages. There is no grammatical agreement, since number and person are not marked. Tense is marked only under certain constraints. Basically, Dagbanli makes a distinction between future and non-future, however the main distinction does not concern Tense, but Aspect and occurs between perfective and imperfective.
Postverbal particles
[edit]The postverbal particle la marks presentational focus, rather than contrastive focus.[25] In comparison to the postverbal particle in Dagaare, the function of this Dagbanli particle is also not yet fully investigated. There are native speakers, who consider the particle to indicate that what is expressed to the hearer is not shared knowledge. Issah (2013) on the other hand argues that the presence of la asserts new information, while its absence indicates old information.
Conjoint / disjoint markers
[edit]| [27] | Conjoint | Disjoint |
|---|---|---|
| Imperfective | Ò 3SG nyú-r-í drink-IPFV-CONJ kóm. water „He is drinking water.“ |
Ò 3SG nyú-r-á. drink-IPFV-CONJ „He is drinking.“ |
| Perfective | Ò 3SG nyú-Ø drink.PFV-CONJ kóm. water „He drank water.“ |
Ò 3SG nyú-yá. drink.PFV-CONJ „He drank.“ |
Questions
[edit]In Dagbanli, the question word can either appear in situ or ex situ.[27]
Ex situ
[edit]| Dagbanli | Question words |
|---|---|
| Bɔ | what |
| Dini | which |
| Ya | where |
| Wula | how |
| ŋuni | who |
| ŋun | whose |
| Bɔ zuɤu | why |
The basic word order in Dagbanli questions is SVO, such that the question word is fronted and followed by the focus marker ka. This is the unmarked form and accepted by many native speakers as "natural".[20]
In situ
[edit]Yes-/No-question in Dagbanli are formed by the disjunction bee ('or'), which either conjoints two propositions or which occurs sentence-finally to indicate that the sentence with SVO order is actually a question.
In addition to Yes-/No-questions, the question word can also occur in sentence-final position. This might correspond to echo questions.[28]
Dagbanli language scholars
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b Dagbani at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
- ^ Naden, Tony (2014). Dagbani dictionary. Webonary.
- ^ "Breaking the Low-Resource Barrier for Dagbani ASR: From Data Collection to ASR Modeling".
- ^ Naden, Tony (1989). Gur. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. pp. 141–168.
- ^ Bendor-Samuel, John T. (1989). The Niger-Congo Languages. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
- ^ a b Hudu, Fusheini (2010). Dagbani tongue-root harmony: a formal account with ultrasound investigation. Vancouver: University of British Columbia.
- ^ Olawsky 1997
- ^ Denteh, A. C. (Andrew Crakye) (1974). Spoken Dagbani for non-Dagbani beginners. Pointer. OCLC 4602509.
- ^ Olawsky, Knut J. (2003-01-02), "What is a word in Dagbani?", Word, Cambridge University Press, pp. 205–226, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511486241.009, ISBN 978-0-521-81899-5
- ^ Sergio, Baldi; Adam, Mahmoud (2006). Dagbani basic and cultural vocabulary. Univ. degli Studidi Napoli "L'Orientale". p. 10. ISBN 9788895044071. OCLC 613117515.
- ^ Fisch, Rudolf (1913). "Wörtersammlung Dagbané-Deutsch". MSOS. 16: 113–214.
- ^ Fisch, Rudolf (1912). "Grammatik der Dagomba-Sprache". Archiv für das Studium Deutscher Kolonialsprachen. 14: 1–79.
- ^ Fisch, Rudolf (1913). "Dagbane Sprachproben". M. Veröfffentlich Vom Seminar für Kolonialsprachen in Hamburg. 8: beiheft.
- ^ Tamakloe, E. Foster, ed. (1934). Dagomba Dictionary and Grammar. Accra: Government Printer.
- ^ Tamakloe, Emmanuel F. (1940). H.A.Blair (ed.). Dagomba (Dagbane) Dictionary. Accra: Government Printer.
- ^ Mahama, Ibrahim (2003). Dagbani-English Dictionary. Tamale, N/R: School for Life.
- ^ "Dagbani Dictionary" (PDF).
- ^ "Dagbani Dictionary progress" (PDF).
- ^ Bodomo, Adams; Abubakari, Hasiyatu; Issah, Samuel Alhassan (2020). Handbook of the Mabia Languages of West Africa. Glienicke: Galda Verlag.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Olawsky, Knut (1999). Aspects of Dagbani grammar. Munich: Lincom.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Inusah, Abdul-Razak (2017). "Patterns of Relative Clauses in Dagbanli". SAGE Open: 1–9.
- ^ Issah, Samuel Alhassan; Acheampong, Samuel Owoahene (2021). "Interrogative Pronouns in Dagbani and Likpakpaanl". Ghana Journal of Linguistics. 10 (3): 30–57. doi:10.4314/gjl.v10i2.2. S2CID 250234740.
- ^ a b c Issah, Samuel Alhassan (2018). On the structure of A-bar constructions in Dagbani: Perspectives of wh-questions and fragment answers (Ph.D.thesis ed.). Frankfurt am Main: Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität.
- ^ Issah, Samuel Alhassan (2018). "The Form and Function of Dagbani Demonstratives". In Agwuele, Augustine; Bodomo, Adams (eds.). The Routledge Handbook of African Linguistics. Vol. 2 (42 ed.). Routledge. pp. 281–296.
- ^ a b c d Issah, Samuel Alhassan (2013). "The Function of the Post Verbal la in Dagbani". Studies in African Linguistics. 42 (2): 153–176. doi:10.32473/sal.v42i2.107272. S2CID 141937504.
- ^ Bodomo, Adams (1997). The structure of Dagaare. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
- ^ a b "The VP-periphery in Mabia languages | Dagbani". The VP-periphery in Mabia languages. Retrieved 2022-09-23.
- ^ a b c Issah, Samuel Alhassan; Smith, Peter W. (2020). "Subject and non-subject ex situ focus in Dagbani". Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics. 5 (1): 1–36. doi:10.5334/gjgl.664. S2CID 113397056.
External links
[edit]
- Knut Olawsky's Homepage
- The UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive – Dagbani
- Dagbani kasahorow online dictionary Archived 2021-07-01 at the Wayback Machine
- Dagbane dictionary (PDF)
- The VP-periphery in Mabia languages
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Other |
