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Antisemitism in Spain

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Antisemitism in Spain encompasses hostility, prejudice and discrimination against Jews in Spain from the medieval period to the present. Medieval anti-Judaism in the Christian kingdoms culminated in the Massacre of 1391, the expulsion of 1492 and the Inquisition's prosecution of conversos under statutes of limpieza de sangre.[1] Modern antisemitism reached Spain from France in the late 19th century, fused with the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory and, after 1917, with Judeo-Bolshevik tropes, and peaked between 1931 and 1945, when the extreme right deployed it against the Second Spanish Republic and the labor movement in a country with almost no Jews.[2]

Jews were recognized as full citizens in 1978; the community today numbers about 40,000, roughly 0.1% of the population.[3] Surveys since the 1980s have recorded persistently high levels of negative stereotypes, and a 2008 Pew Research Center poll found Spain the only European country surveyed in which unfavorable views of Jews outnumbered favorable ones.[4] Scholars have documented the transfer of traditional anti-Jewish tropes onto the State of Israel, a pattern the sociologist Alejandro Baer and Paula López have called "antisemitism without antisemites".[5]

Recorded antisemitic incidents rose sharply in 2025, when the Interior Ministry registered 69 offences, an 86.5% increase on the previous year.[6] In 2026 a series of widely reported incidents included the online publication of a map of Jewish and Israeli businesses in Barcelona, an attempted attack on a kosher restaurant in Madrid, and vandalism of Jewish cemeteries and monuments.

History

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Medieval Iberia

[edit]
Detail of the altarpiece from the chapel of Corpus Christi in the church of the monastery of Santa Maria de Vallbona de les Monges, depicting Jews profaning the host, with a Jew stabbing a host that bleeds on the table.[7]

Christian anti-Judaism began with the expansion of Christianity on the Iberian Peninsula during the rule of the Roman Empire. Its first violent manifestation occurred in the persecution of Jews in Visigothic Hispania. During the Middle Ages, Jews in al-Andalus, the Muslim-ruled Iberian Peninsula, were designated dhimmis, a protected class in Islam. Despite occasional violent outbursts such as the 1066 Granada massacre, Jews were granted protection to profess their religion in exchange for abiding to certain conditions that limited their rights concerning Muslims.[8]

After the Almoravid invasion from Morocco in the 11th century, the situation of the Jewish population in Muslim territory worsened.[8] During the invasion of the extremist Zahiri-ruled Almohad Caliphate of North Africa, many Jews fled to the northern Christian kingdoms, the Eastern Mediterranean, and the parts of North Africa outside of Almohad control.[9]

Iberian Jews lived in relative peace next to their Christian neighbors. The kings, especially those of the Kingdom of Aragon, regarded the Jews as royal property and it was in their interest to protect them. During this time, the Jews enjoyed relative political freedom, they had posts in the courts and were merchants and businessmen. The Jews used to live separately in juderías or "Jewish quarters".

The dynastic change entailed by the ascension of the House of Trastámara after the Castilian Civil War saw a radicalization of the antisemitic sentiment across the aforementioned crown of Castile, with a convergence of religious doctrinal anti-Judaism, aristocratic political antisemitism, and popular antisemitism exacerbated by the ongoing social and economic crisis of the Late Middle Ages.[10]

Blood libel accusations were spreading and decrees were imposed on the Jewish people. The situation peaked with the Massacre of 1391, in which entire communities were murdered and many were forcibly converted.[11]

Early modern era

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In 1492, via the Alhambra Decree, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain ordered the expulsion of a disputed number of Jews from the Crowns of Castile and Aragon, ranging from 45,000 to 200,000,[12][13] and thus put an end to the largest Jewish communities in Europe. The expulsion of the Jews from Navarre followed suit in 1498.[14] The coerced baptisms eventually produced the phenomenon of the conversos, the Inquisition and statutes of limpieza de sangre.

Conspiracies about conversos featured in a notable number of vernacular works printed in the territory of current-day Spain as well as the rest of Iberia throughout the early modern era, underpinning the image of Judaizing conversos as the quintessential folk devils.[1]

Modern antisemitism (1889–1975)

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Illustration of the blood libel of "Dominguito del Val" as published in La Hormiga de Oro, a Carlist-leaning magazine, in 1906.

Modern antisemitism came to Spain through France.[15] Édouard Drumont's antisemitic tract La France juive was published in Spain as early as 1889, translated by Pelegrín Casabó y Pagés, who also published an analogous La España judía in 1891.[16] The brand of antisemitism imbued of the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory increased in Catholic publications after 1898.[17]

Following the October Revolution and the founding of the Spanish Communist Party in 1920, such "anti-Spanish forces" were primarily identified with the "destructive communist virus", which was often considered to be guided by the Jews.[18]

The 1931–45 period saw the peak of modern antisemitism in Spain, which was primarily embraced by the extreme right.[2] In a country with few Jews, this discourse was functional from an ideological standpoint to the rallying of the conservative forces against republicanism and the workers' movement rather than the minuscule Jewish community.[19] The Francoist winning side emerging from the 1936–39 Civil War repressed the Jews, prohibiting their worship and their organizations except in North Africa.[19]

Democratic era

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It was during the 1960s that the first Spanish neo-Nazi groups appeared, such as CEDADE. Later on, Spanish Neo-Nazis attempted to use antisemitic discourse to explain the political transition to democracy (1976–1982) after the death of Franco. It drew on the same ideas that had been expressed in 1931 when the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed; political revolutions could be explained as the result of various "intrigues".

In 1978, Jews were recognised as full citizens in Spain, and today the Jewish population numbers about 40,000, approximately 0.1% of Spain's population, 20,000 of whom are registered in the Jewish communities. Most live in the larger cities of Spain on the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa or the islands.[20]

Surveys conducted in Spain during the 1980s and 1990s indicated an ambivalent public perception of Jews. These studies identified the coexistence of negative stereotypes, including associations with avarice, treachery, and deicide, alongside more favorable characterizations such as a strong work ethic and their sense of responsibility.[21] A subsequent survey carried out in 1998 among approximately 6,000 students across 145 Spanish schools recorded a modest increase in racist attitudes compared with findings from 1993. In this survey, 14.9 percent of respondents supported the expulsion of Jews, compared with 12.5 percent five years earlier.[22]

21st century

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In the spring of 2002, Spain, along with several other European Union member states, experienced a surge in antisemitic incidents. This development followed the outbreak of the Al-Aqsa Intifada in October 2000 and was influenced by heightened tensions related to the Middle East conflict. The increase in antisemitic activity peaked between late March and mid-May 2002, a period that coincided with a significant escalation of violence in the region.[23]

The same period saw the mainstream press publish cartoons that drew on traditional anti-Jewish imagery in depicting Israel and Israelis (see below).

Surveys and reports published between 2008 and 2010 placed Spain among the European Union countries with the highest recorded levels of antisemitic attitudes (see below).

In May 2014, some 17,500 antisemitic tweets were posted following Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C.'s victory in the EuroLeague final on 18 May. Spanish supporters created an expletive antisemitic hashtag after the match, which briefly became one of the most popular keywords on Twitter in Spain. Twelve Jewish associations filed a judicial complaint after seeing references in some messages to death camps and the mass murder of Jews in the Holocaust. The organizations singled out five people who were identified by their real names on Twitter, accusing them of incitement to hatred and discrimination, a crime punishable by up to three years' imprisonment in Spain.[24]

In 2023, the Observatorio de Antisemitismo en España recorded 60 antisemitic incidents, compared with 34 in 2022.[25] On 17 April, the Great Synagogue of Barcelona was defaced with graffiti reading "Free Palestine from the river to the sea" and other anti-Israel messages on the eve of Yom HaShoah.[26]

Antisemitic incidents increased following the 7 October attacks in Israel. On 8 October, Madrid's principal synagogue was spray-painted with the words "Free Palestine" alongside a crossed-out Star of David.[27] On 18 October, participants in a pro-Palestinian demonstration in Melilla attempted to approach a synagogue while shouting "Israel asesino" ("Israel murderer"); other demonstrators entered Jewish-owned businesses, where owners were intimidated and insulted. Police prevented the protesters from reaching the synagogue.[28] The FCJE reported during the same period graffiti in the Jewish quarter of Besalú, graffiti on a Madrid synagogue and on the home of a Jewish family, and a stone thrown through the window of a Jewish couple's home.[29]

On 21 October, between 90 and 100 pro-Palestinian demonstrators entered the lobby of the Hotel Cortés in Barcelona, which was linked to an Israeli owner, remained there for approximately an hour and replaced flags displayed on the building with Palestinian flags. The Jewish Community of Barcelona characterized the action as antisemitic, while the protesters said that they were targeting the owner's alleged links to Israeli economic and military interests.[30] The United States Department of State's 2023 religious-freedom report subsequently cited additional reports of swastikas on the mailboxes of Jewish families, graffiti targeting synagogues and cemeteries, increased threats to Jewish schools, a boycott of Jewish-owned businesses in Melilla and alleged mistreatment of a Spanish-Israeli student by a teacher.[31]

In 2024, the Observatorio de Antisemitismo recorded 193 incidents, compared with 60 in 2023 and 34 in 2022. The figure was more than three times the 2023 total.[32] On 23 April, a Jewish woman in central Madrid was followed, spat upon and assaulted by a participant in a pro-Palestinian demonstration. Police arrested the alleged attacker on suspicion of a hate crime, assault and property damage; according to the victim's complaint, the attacker also made antisemitic remarks including a statement that Hitler should have killed more Jews.[33]

Jewish and Israeli university students in Madrid also reported harassment during 2024. One Jewish student told Spanish media that another student spat on her after seeing Jewish symbols and called her a murderer; other students reported threats and said that they had become afraid to attend classes.[34][35] On 9 June, the Observatory reported that an Israeli man wearing a kippah was punched in Barcelona's Gothic Quarter by attackers who had identified him as Jewish; he subsequently reported the incident to police.[36]

Recorded incidents rose sharply in 2025 (see below), and 2026 brought a cluster of widely reported incidents.

In early 2026, the Spanish Jewish community and international observers reported a significant rise in digital and physical targeting of Jewish institutions in Catalonia, headlined by the launch of the Barcelonaz project.[37] The project identifies and publicizes the locations of over 150 Jewish businesses, Israeli tech firms, and communal institutions, including the Hatikva Jewish school and various kosher establishments.[38] While the project creators frame the map as an investigation into the "Zionist economy," the Federation of Jewish Communities of Spain (FCJE) has characterized it as an instrument of "stigmatization and hostility" that incites discrimination and potential violence against Jewish citizens.[39] On 4 January 2026, GoGoCarto removed the map following complaints from Jewish and anti-discrimination organizations.[40]

This development coincided with other incidents in the city, including a physical attack on Israeli mural artists in Barcelona and reports of discriminatory account restrictions for Israeli clients at major Spanish financial institutions like Banco Sabadell, for which the bank’s chairman later apologized.[41] Legal complaints have been filed against the French-hosted platform GoGoCarto, which hosts the Barcelonaz map, alleging that it violates anti-hate laws by targeting a population based on supposed religious or national affiliation.[38]

On 24 January 2026, around twenty graves and headstones in the Jewish section of the Les Corts cemetery in Barcelona were vandalized. The Mossos d'Esquadra opened an investigation, and the Jewish sections of the Les Corts, Sant Andreu and Collserola cemeteries were temporarily closed as a precaution. The Federation of Jewish Communities of Spain and the Jewish Community of Barcelona characterized the vandalism as antisemitic.[42][43][44]

On 4 March 2025, an attempted arson attack targeted the Rimmon Kosher restaurant in central Madrid while customers were inside. An assailant poured inflammable liquid at its entrance but failed to ignite the premises. Police arrested a 22-year-old suspect the following month and investigated the attack as antisemitic; according to investigators, the suspect had initially intended to attack Madrid's principal synagogue but selected the restaurant after finding the synagogue closed. He was remanded in custody on suspicion of hate crime, attempted homicide and arson.[45]

Later that same month, three elderly Israeli tourists, including a Holocaust survivor, were asked to leave the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía in Madrid after displaying an Israeli flag and a Star of David necklace, and reportedly being harassed by other visitors who called them “child killers.” According to reporting, rather than intervening against those who insulted the women, a senior museum official instructed a security guard to have them removed, with the guard telling them that “some visitors were disturbed” by their presence.[46][47][48]

On 27 April 2026, two inscriptions described by police as antisemitic were painted on the façade of Valencia’s Lonja de la Seda, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Police arrested a 25-year-old man in July as the suspected perpetrator of the vandalism.[49][50][51]

In May 2026, a woman was verbally abused with antisemitic insults by a man while travelling on the Madrid Metro for several stops. She was targeted due to her wearing a visible Jewish symbol. The woman, who documented a part of the incident on video, filed a complaint and the suspect was identified.[52][53][54] That same month, a married Jewish American couple were refused entry to an LGBTQ sauna in Barcelona after an employee noticed a Star of David necklace and asked whether they were Zionists. The event was filmed and widely shared online. The venue later apologised, saying that the employee's actions did not reflect company policy. The local police (Mossos d'Esquadra) opened an investigation into a possible hate crime and discrimination offense.[55][56][57]

On 3 July 2026, a group of French Jewish visitors reported being followed, insulted and spat at after leaving a synagogue in Barcelona. Several members of the group were visibly Jewish, including two wearing kippahs, and the group said that people pursuing them shouted phrases including ‘the Jews are not welcome in Barcelona.’ The Federation of Jewish Communities of Spain said it was gathering evidence about the incident and considering legal complaints.[58][59]

In July 2026, a "Destroy Israel" banner was displayed during the opening ceremony of the San Fermín festival in Pamplona, Navarre. The banner also featured a crossed-out Israeli flag and the initials EHKS (Euskal Herriko Kontseilu Sozialista), the Basque socialist organization.[60][61] On 1 August 2026, the statue of Maimonides in Córdoba was vandalized with a swastika.[62]

Incidence and statistics

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Antisemitic events in Spain recorded by the Observatorio de antisemitismo en España, 2009–2011[63]
200920102011
Internet-12
Media1037
Attacks on property412
Attacks on persons542
Trivialisation of the Holocaust-13
Delegitimizing Israel--5
Incidents-11
Instigation to antisemitism-12
Legal decisions-6-
Total191230

The Observatorio de Antisemitismo en España, whose definition of an incident includes both criminal and non-criminal manifestations, recorded 34 antisemitic incidents in 2022, 60 in 2023 and 193 in 2024.[64] Its 2025 report, presented on 2 September 2026, recorded 221 incidents, an increase of 14.5 percent from the 193 recorded in 2024. The documented incidents included verbal aggression, threats, harassment, vandalism, boycotts and hate crimes, with the highest monthly totals in October, September and July. The report warned of a "worrying normalisation" of antisemitic discourse and conduct and said that the true number was probably higher because of under-reporting driven by fear of reprisals. During 2025 the Movimiento contra la Intolerancia filed 39 complaints with the Hate Crimes Prosecutor's Office against online channels that repeatedly disseminated alleged antisemitic hate speech.[65] These figures use a broader methodology than the criminal offences and incidents recorded by the Interior Ministry.

The increase was particularly pronounced late in 2024. According to the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, the highest monthly totals recorded by the Observatorio were 25 incidents in October and 30 in November, a period that included the first anniversary of the 7 October 2023 attacks.[66]

According to the Spanish Interior Ministry, in 2025, Spain recorded 2,417 hate-related criminal offences and incidents, an increase of 23.6% compared with 2024 and the highest figure since records began in 2014. 69 antisemitic incidents were registered, an increase of 86.5% compared with 2024.[67][68][69]

Antisemitic incidents in Spain recorded by the Observatorio de Antisemitismo en España, 2022–2025[70][71]
2022 2023 2024 2025
34 60 193 221

Public attitudes

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Public opinion data published by the Pew Research Center in September 2008 revealed persistently high levels of negative attitudes toward Jews in Spain. According to the study, 46 percent of Spaniards expressed unfavorable views of Jews, a substantial increase from 21 percent in 2005. Spain was the only European country surveyed in which negative perceptions of Jews exceeded positive ones; only 37 percent of respondents reported favorable views.[72][73]

In September 2009, the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) released a report titled Polluting the Public Square: Anti-Semitic Discourse in Spain, which examined trends in public rhetoric and media representation. The report expressed concern over what it described as the increasing normalization of antisemitic discourse, including the public dissemination of traditional antisemitic stereotypes, the appearance of hostile caricatures in mainstream media, and protest activity in which Israel was accused of genocide and Jews were compared to Nazis. The ADL argued that such developments reflected a blurring of the distinction between criticism of Israeli government policies and antisemitism, a shift it associated with a measurable rise in antisemitic attitudes within Spanish society.[74]

Trends in antisemitic attitudes in Spain[75][76][77][78][79]
Percent responding "probably true"
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Jews are more loyal to Israel than to this country
Jews have too much power in the business world
Jews have too much power in international financial markets
Jews still talk too much about the Holocaust
  •   2002
  •   2004
  •   2005
  •   2007
  •   2009
  •   2012

According to the Report on Anti-Semitism in Spain in 2010, jointly produced by the Observatory on Antisemitism in Spain and the nongovernmental organization Movement Against Intolerance, Spain ranked among the most antisemitic countries in the European Union during a period marked by the most severe economic recession in its modern history.[80]

Public opinion data cited in the report included a poll commissioned by the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which found that 58.4 percent of respondents agreed with the statement that Jews were powerful because they controlled the economy and mass media. This belief was more widespread among specific groups, rising to 62.2 percent among university students and 70.5 percent among individuals who identified themselves as politically engaged. More than 60 percent of university students stated that they would not want Jewish classmates. Additional polling indicated that 34.6 percent of the general population held unfavorable or very unfavorable views of Jews.[81] The same data revealed ideological variation in antisemitic attitudes. Hostility toward Jews was reported by 34 percent of respondents identifying with the far right and by 37.7 percent of those identifying with the center-left. Measures of expressed sympathy toward Jews showed slightly higher scores among individuals on the extreme right, with an average of 4.9 on a scale of 1 to 10, compared with a population-wide average of 4.6. Among respondents who acknowledged antipathy toward Jews, only 17 percent attributed this sentiment to the Middle East conflict. Nearly 30 percent cited Jewish religion, customs, or way of life as the basis for their negative views, while slightly more than 20 percent reported disliking Jews without being able to identify a specific reason.[81]

In 2010, Casa Sefarad-Israel initiated a comprehensive sociological study, employing both qualitative and quantitative methodologies, with the objectives of assessing the prevalence of antisemitism in Spain, identifying its sources, and evaluating its intensity.[82] The qualitative findings indicated a decline in traditional forms of antisemitism, which nevertheless persisted in certain segments of society, alongside a rise in attitudes characterized as political or economic in nature.[83] The quantitative component of the study, conducted in April 2010, found that 34.6 percent of respondents expressed unfavorable views of Jews, while 48 percent reported favorable opinions. Levels of unfavorable attitudes toward Jews were comparable to those recorded for other religious groups, including Orthodox Christians and Protestants. Notably, Jews were perceived as a source of societal problems in Spain at a level similar to that attributed to Catholics. Population segmentation analysis suggested relatively uniform patterns of favorable and unfavorable attitudes across religious groups, rather than distinctly differentiated views toward Jews.[84]

Among respondents who expressed unfavorable attitudes toward Jews, 17.5 percent cited Israel’s role in the Middle East conflict as the primary reason, while 31.3 percent identified this factor as explaining why Jews were perceived as creating problems globally. These findings indicated that a significant portion of negative perceptions of Jews in Spain was linked to an association between Jews as a religious group and the policies of the State of Israel. Among those who believed Jews created problems specifically within Spain, the most frequently cited reason, at 11.4 percent, related to issues commonly associated with immigration. This suggested that some segments of the population viewed Jews as an alien group and extended broader negative attitudes toward perceived difference in terms of origin and religion. With regard to opinions on the Middle East, both Israel and Palestine were viewed unfavorably by a majority of respondents, although 67.2 percent assigned responsibility for the conflict to both sides to some degree. At the same time, survey results showed broad recognition of the legitimacy of the State of Israel.[82]

Characteristics

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Historical interpretations

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Some commentators have argued that antisemitism in Spain is rooted in historical patterns of religious and ethnic homogeneity, shaped by a longstanding emphasis on Catholic identity and the notion of an internal enemy undermining the traditional social order.[23][85] This interpretation, however, has been challenged by evidence that contemporary Spain is among the most secularized countries in Europe.[86][87] Only a small minority of Spaniards, approximately 3 percent, identify religion as one of their three most important personal values, and religious affiliation is generally not regarded as a central component of national or personal identity.[88]

Antizionism

[edit]

Scholars have documented forms of antisemitism in contemporary Spain in which traditional anti-Jewish tropes are applied to the State of Israel, while accusations against Israel are sometimes projected onto Jews collectively.[89][5][90] The sociologist Alejandro Baer and Paula López have described this as "antisemitism without antisemites": the persistence of antisemitic attitudes and imagery alongside denial or lack of recognition that they are antisemitic.[5]

Antisemitism in the media

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Some important elements differentiate the Spanish media from its European counterparts:

  • Uniformity of opinion across ideological lines - There are few writers who consistently go beyond stereotypes or denounce manipulation.
  • Anti-Americanism - The level of intensity was higher in Spain, due to former Prime Minister Aznar's role in the war in Iraq, in comparison to the anti-Bush and antiwar policy of the Socialist government.
  • Intensity - Antisemitic discourse in the Spanish media has a long history and reaches levels of intensity that would be considered unacceptable elsewhere in Europe. It should be mentioned that when confronted with the accusation of antisemitism, journalists, as well as editors and opinion columnists in the press, generally deny it, claiming they are justifiably criticizing the policies of Israel.[91]

During the past decade, historical Catholic antisemitic stereotypes returned in the media when it came to the Middle East coverage. Medieval antisemitic tropes rooted in the religious tradition emerged from time to time in the representation of the Israeli-Arab conflict in the mainstream press. During the years of the Second Intifada and throughout the 2006 Lebanon War, Spanish newspapers and magazines published cartoons in which Israelis, Israel as a whole, or Jewish symbols were linked to the killing of children, themes of vengeance and cruelty, echoing ancient anti-Jewish imagery. Likewise, this merges with newer stereotypes such as charges of sowing disorder, subjugation of others, and the analogies between Israelis and Nazis - sometimes through direct comparisons.[74][92] For example, on 23 April 2002, at the height of Operation Defensive Shield, the highly satirical magazine El Jueves (Thursday) displayed on its front page a caricature of Ariel Sharon, the Prime Minister of Israel, with a pig's face, a skull cap, a swastika and the caption "This wild animal."[93]

A contemporary example of antisemitism in the Spanish Media is the posting of 17,500 antisemitic tweets following Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C.'s win of the EuroLeague on May 18, 2014. Angry Spanish supporters created an expletive antisemitic hashtag in their messages after the match, which briefly became one of the most popular keywords on Twitter in Spain. Twelve Jewish associations filed a judicial complaint after seeing references in some messages to death camps and the mass murder of Jews in the Holocaust. The organizations singled out five people who were identified by their real names on Twitter, accusing them of “incitement to hatred and discrimination” — a crime punishable by up to three years’ jail in Spain.[94]

See also

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References

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  1. 1 2 Soyer 2019, pp. 8–13.
  2. 1 2 Álvarez Chillida 2007, pp. 204–205.
  3. ↑ Manifestations of Antisemitism in the EU 2002 – 2003 (PDF) (Report). EUMC. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  4. ↑ Unfavorable Views of Jews and Muslims on the Increase in Europe (PDF) (Report). Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  5. 1 2 3 Baer, Alejandro; López, Paula (13 September 2015). "Antisemitismo sin antisemitas". El País (in Spanish). ISSN 1134-6582. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
  6. ↑ "Los delitos e incidentes de odio aumentaron un 23,6 por ciento en 2025 y registraron la mayor cifra de la serie histórica" (Press release) (in Spanish). Ministry of the Interior. 2026. Retrieved 16 June 2026.
  7. ↑ Glazer-Eytan 2019, pp. 46, 67.
  8. 1 2 García Sanjuán 2001, pp. 42–45.
  9. ↑ Hinojosa Montalvo 2000, p. 26.
  10. ↑ Cantera-Montenegro 2019, pp. 143, 146.
  11. ↑ Luis., Lacave, José (1987). Sefarad, Sefarad : la España judía. Armengol, Manel., Ontañón, Francisco., Mazal Holocaust Collection. [Madrid]: Comisión Quinto Centenario, Grupo de Trabajo Sefarad 92. ISBN 9788485983582. OCLC 20775283.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ↑ Joseph Pérez (1988). Isabel y Fernando, los Reyes Católicos [Isabella and Ferdinand, the Catholic Monarchs] (in Spanish). Fuenterrabía: Nerea. p. 215. ISBN 84-89569-12-6.
  13. ↑ Telushkin, Joseph (1991). "Modern Jewish History: The Spanish Expulsion (1492)". Jewish Virtual Library. AICE. Retrieved 25 August 2017.
  14. ↑ Domínguez Ortiz, Antonio (1960). "Una provisión de Felipe II en favor de los conversos de Navarra". Miscelánea de Estudios Árabes y Hebraicos. Sección Hebreo. 9. Granada: Editorial Universidad de Granada. doi:10.30827/meahhebreo.v9i0.822 (inactive 11 July 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
  15. ↑ Álvarez Chillida 2002, p. 184.
  16. ↑ Álvarez Chillida 2002, p. 198.
  17. ↑ Álvarez Chillida 2002, p. 204.
  18. ↑ Rodríguez Jiménez, José L. "Antisemitism and the Extreme Right in Spain (1962–1997)". The Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism. Archived from the original on 26 September 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  19. 1 2 Álvarez Chillida 2007, p. 205.
  20. ↑ "Manifestations of Antisemitism in the EU 2002 - 2003" (PDF). EUMC. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  21. ↑ "SPAIN 2003-4". The Stephen Ruth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism. Archived from the original on 29 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  22. ↑ "SPAIN 1998-9". The Stephen Ruth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitim. Archived from the original on 29 September 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  23. 1 2 Bergman, Werner and Juliane Wetzel. "Manifestations of anti-Semitism in the European Union" (PDF). EUMC. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  24. ↑ "Maccabi Tel Aviv Euroleague win leads to antisemitic tweets". antisemitism.org.il. Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
  25. ↑ Informe sobre el Antisemitismo en España 2024 (PDF) (Report) (in Spanish). Observatorio de Antisemitismo en España. 2025. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  26. ↑ Friedman, Gabe (18 April 2023). "Barcelona synagogue defaced with anti-Israel graffiti". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  27. ↑ "A Decade of Attacks on Synagogues Worldwide". Anti-Defamation League. 13 March 2026. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  28. ↑ "La FCJE condena los incidentes en Melilla y reclama responsabilidad a los políticos y medios" (in Spanish). Federación de Comunidades Judías de España. 19 October 2023. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  29. ↑ "La FCJE condena los incidentes en Melilla y reclama responsabilidad a los políticos y medios" (in Spanish). Federación de Comunidades Judías de España. 19 October 2023. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  30. ↑ "Manifestantes propalestina ocupan un hotel de Barcelona vinculado a capital israelí". EFE (in Spanish). 21 October 2023. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  31. ↑ 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom: Spain (Report). United States Department of State. 2024. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  32. ↑ "Un informe registra 193 incidentes antisemitas en España en 2024, el triple que en 2023" (in Spanish). Europa Press. 14 July 2025. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  33. ↑ "Detenida la manifestante propalestina que agredió a una mujer judía en Madrid". Telemadrid (in Spanish). 26 April 2024. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  34. ↑ "Estudiantes israelíes en Madrid denuncian tener "miedo" de ir a clase". Telemadrid (in Spanish). 11 May 2024. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  35. ↑ "Me vio con símbolos judíos y me escupió en la cara". Antena 3 (in Spanish). 27 May 2024. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  36. ↑ "Ciudadano israelí agredido en Barcelona" (in Spanish). Observatorio de Antisemitismo en España. 9 June 2024. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  37. ↑ "Catalonia map of Jewish, Israeli firms draws complaints". The Jerusalem Post. 2 January 2026. ISSN 0792-822X. Retrieved 2 January 2026.
  38. 1 2 Stub, Zev (2 January 2026). "Spanish Jews warn map of local Jewish and 'Zionist' businesses will lead to violence". The Times of Israel. ISSN 0040-7909. Retrieved 2 January 2026.
  39. ↑ Dylan (18 December 2025). "President of the Federation of Jewish Communities of Spain David Obadía warns of rising antisemitism in the country and calls for stronger measures to protect Jewish communities". European Jewish Congress. Retrieved 2 January 2026.
  40. ↑ "Times of Israel: "Spanish map of Jewish and 'Zionist' businesses taken down amid uproar"". European Jewish Congress. 5 January 2026. Retrieved 30 August 2026.
  41. ↑ "Spanish bank apologizes over israeli account restrictions". The Jerusalem Post. 31 December 2025. ISSN 0792-822X. Retrieved 2 January 2026.
  42. ↑ País, El (25 January 2026). "Barcelona cierra hasta el lunes los recintos hebreos de tres cementerios tras registrar actos vandálicos". El País (in Spanish). Retrieved 30 August 2026.
  43. ↑ "La comunidad judía y Cementiris denuncian en los Mossos los ataques a las tumbas". La Vanguardia (in Spanish). 26 January 2026. Retrieved 30 August 2026.
  44. ↑ Press, Europa (25 January 2026). "El Ayuntamiento de Barcelona lamenta un ataque vandálico en el cementerio judío de Les Corts". www.europapress.es. Europa Press. Retrieved 30 August 2026.
  45. ↑ López-Fonseca, Óscar; Viúdez, Juana (10 April 2025). "Detenido un estudiante por intentar incendiar una pizzería judía en Madrid en represalia por Gaza". El País (in Spanish). Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  46. ↑ ynet (16 February 2026). "Israeli tourists expelled from Madrid museum after being called 'child killers'". Ynetglobal. Retrieved 16 February 2026.
  47. ↑ "El Reina Sofía investiga la expulsión de tres turistas israelíes que llevaban su bandera y símbolos judíos". El Mundo (in Spanish). 16 February 2026. Retrieved 1 March 2026.
  48. ↑ Lidor, Canaan (23 February 2026). "Madrid museum faces lawsuit for kicking out three Israeli women". jewishchronicle.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 1 March 2026.
  49. ↑ SER, Cadena (21 July 2026). "Detenido por hacer pintadas en la Lonja de València". Cadena SER (in European Spanish). Retrieved 30 August 2026.
  50. ↑ cero, radio onda (21 July 2026). "Un detenido por realizar pintadas antisemitas en la Lonja de la Seda de Valencia". OndaCero (in Spanish). Retrieved 30 August 2026.
  51. ↑ 20minutos | (21 July 2026). "Un detenido por realizar pintadas antisemitas en la Lonja de la Seda de Valencia, Patrimonio de la Humanidad". www.20minutos.es - Últimas Noticia (in Spanish). Retrieved 30 August 2026.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  52. ↑ "Una mujer sufre insultos antisemitas en el Metro de Madrid". Telemadrid. 18 May 2026. Retrieved 24 May 2026.
  53. ↑ "La víctima de insultos en Metro denuncia los hechos en comisaría". MadridActual (Agencia EFE). 13 January 2021. Retrieved 24 May 2026.
  54. ↑ Dylan (19 May 2026). "Jewish woman targeted in antisemitic incident on the Madrid Metro". European Jewish Congress. Retrieved 24 May 2026.
  55. ↑ "Los Mossos investigan la denuncia de dos mujeres judías a las que denegaron el acceso a una sauna por lucir una estrella de David". El País (in Spanish). 1 June 2026. Retrieved 13 June 2026.
  56. ↑ "Los Mossos investigan la denuncia de dos judías por denegarles el acceso a una sauna". Infobae (in Spanish). EFE. 1 June 2026. Retrieved 13 June 2026.
  57. ↑ Staff, ToI (31 May 2026). "Two Jewish women denied entry to Barcelona sauna over Star of David necklaces". The Times of Israel. ISSN 0040-7909. Retrieved 31 August 2026.
  58. ↑ "La FCJE condena grave incidente antisemita en Barcelona contra judíos franceses" (in Spanish). 6 July 2026. Retrieved 31 August 2026.
  59. ↑ Lidor, Canaan (6 July 2026). "Judíos franceses perseguidos por una turba en Barcelona". JNS.org - Español (in Spanish). Retrieved 31 August 2026.
  60. ↑ Newton, Jessica (7 July 2026). "'Destroy Israel' banner unfurled in Pamplona as thousands gather for San Fermin bull-running festival". The Olive Press. Retrieved 27 July 2026.
  61. ↑ Stub, Zev (7 July 2026). "'Destroy Israel' banner shown at Pamplona's running of the bulls festival". The Times of Israel. ISSN 0040-7909. Retrieved 27 July 2026.
  62. ↑ Miranda, Luis (1 August 2026). "La estatua de Maimónides en Córdoba aparece vandalizada con una esvástica". Diario ABC (in Spanish). Retrieved 1 August 2026.
  63. ↑ "Antisemitism Summary overview of the situation in the European Union 2001–2011" (PDF). EUMC. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  64. ↑ Informe sobre el Antisemitismo en España 2024 (PDF) (Report) (in Spanish). Observatorio de Antisemitismo en España. 2025. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  65. ↑ "Un informe registra 221 incidentes antisemitas en España en 2025, un 14,5% más que el año anterior". Europa Press (in Spanish). 2 September 2026. Retrieved 5 September 2026.
  66. ↑ Overview of antisemitic incidents recorded in Spain in 2014–2024 (PDF) (Report). European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. 2026. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  67. ↑ "Los delitos e incidentes de odio aumentaron un 23,6 por ciento en 2025 y registraron la mayor cifra de la serie histórica". Spanish Ministry of the Interior. 2026. Retrieved 16 June 2026.
  68. ↑ "Hate crimes in Spain reach record high in 2025 driven by rise in racist incidents". Anadolu Agency. 2026. Retrieved 16 June 2026.
  69. ↑ "Los delitos de odio crecen un 23,6% en 2025 y alcanzan su máximo histórico". Público. 2026. Retrieved 16 June 2026.
  70. ↑ Informe sobre el Antisemitismo en España 2024 (PDF) (Report) (in Spanish). Observatorio de Antisemitismo en España. 2025. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  71. ↑ "Un informe confirma que el antisemitismo va "al alza" en España, con 221 incidentes en 2025". Servimedia (in Spanish). 27 August 2026. Retrieved 1 September 2026.
  72. ↑ By comparison, 36% of Poles had negative views of Jews while 50% had positive views; in Germany, 25% negative versus 64% positive; in France, 20% negative versus 79% positive; and in Britain, 9% negative versus 73% positive.
  73. ↑ "UNFAVORABLE VIEWS OF JEWS AND MUSLIMS ON THE INCREASE IN EUROPE" (PDF). Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  74. 1 2 "Polluting the Public Square: Anti-Semitic Discourse In Spain". ADL. Archived from the original on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 16 September 2013.
  75. ↑ "European Attitudes Toward Jews: A Five Country Survey - October 2002" (PDF). ADL. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 March 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
  76. ↑ "Attitudes Toward Jews, Israel and the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict in Ten European Countries - April 2004" (PDF). ADL. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
  77. ↑ "Attitudes Toward Jews in Twelve European Countries - May 205" (PDF). ADL. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
  78. ↑ "Attitudes Toward Jews in Seven European Countries - February 2009" (PDF). ADL. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
  79. ↑ "Attitudes Toward Jews In Ten European Countries - March 2012" (PDF). ADL. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.
  80. ↑ The Observatory on Anti-Semitism is an arm of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Spain (FCJE)
  81. 1 2 "Informe Anual sobre Antisemitismo en España 2010". 30 March 2011.
  82. 1 2 "STUDY ON ANTISEMITISM IN SPAIN - EXECUTIVE SUMMARY" (PDF). Casa Sefarad-Israel. Retrieved 16 September 2013.[permanent dead link]
  83. ↑ The latter present a tendency towards rationalization and modernization of the stereotypes underlying antisemitic views, largely grounded on the ongoing process of secularization within Spanish society.
  84. ↑ The only group to be negatively rated by a majority of the study population, in every case, was that of the Muslims, both as concerns the levels of unfavorable attitudes and of identification, and of the greater perception of problems created in Spain and throughout the world.
  85. ↑ Wistrich, Robert S. "EUROPEAN ANTI-SEMITISM REINVENTS ITSELF" (PDF). The American Jewish Committee. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  86. ↑ Loewenberg, Samuel (26 June 2005). "As Spaniards Lose Their Religion, Church Leaders Struggle to Hold On". New York Times. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
  87. ↑ Pingree, Geoff (1 October 2004). "Secular drive challenges Spain's Catholic identity". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 21 October 2008.
  88. ↑ "Eurobarometer 69 - Values of Europeans - page 16" (PDF). Retrieved 24 March 2009.
  89. ↑ "El antisemitismo y el conflicto palestino-israelí desde España". Elcano Blog (in Spanish). Real Instituto Elcano. 20 April 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
  90. ↑ Bergmann, Werner; Wetzel, Juliane (2003). Manifestations of anti-Semitism in the European Union (PDF) (Report). EUMC. Retrieved 31 August 2013.
  91. ↑ "SPAIN 2003-4". The Stephen Ruth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism. Archived from the original on 29 September 2013. Retrieved 21 September 2013.
  92. ↑ Baer, Alejandro. "Exclusive: Antisemitism in Spain. Old or New?". European Forum on Antisemitism. Archived from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 21 September 2013.
  93. ↑ "SPAIN 2002-3". The Stephen Ruth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism. Archived from the original on 29 September 2013. Retrieved 21 September 2013.
  94. ↑ "Maccabi Tel Aviv Euroleague win leads to antisemitic tweets". Retrieved 7 April 2019.

Bibliography

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